Chapter One: When Worlds Collide

Chapter Annotated Outline

I. Native American Worlds

A. The First Americans

1. The first people to live in the Western Hemisphere were migrants from Asia; most came across a land bridge between Siberia and Alaska.

2. About 20,000 years after the migration began, glacial melting isolated the people of the Western Hemisphere for 400 generations.

3. For centuries Native Americans were hunter-gatherers; they developed horticulture around 3000 B.C.

4. Agricultural surplus led to populous and wealthy societies in Mexico, Peru, and the Mississippi River Valley.

B. The Mayas and the Aztecs

1. The flowering of civilization began among the Mayan peoples of the Yucatan Peninsula and Guatemala; they built large religious centers and urban communities.

2. An elite class claiming descent from the gods ruled Mayan society and lived off the goods and taxes of peasant families; beginning around A.D. 800, Mayan civilization declined.

3. A second major Mesoamerican civilization developed around the city of Teotihuacan; by A.D. 800 Teotihuacan had also declined.

4. In A.D. 1325 the Aztecs built the city of Tenochtitlan (Mexico City) where they established a hierarchical social order and subjugated most of central Mexico.

5. By A.D. 1500 Tenochtitlan had grown into a metropolis of over 200,000 inhabitants, and the Aztecs posed a formidable challenge to any adversary.

C. The Indians of the North

1. The Indians north of the Rio Grande had smaller, less coercive societies; in A.D. 1500 most of these societies were self-governing tribes composed of clans.

2. Clan leaders resolved feuds and disciplined individuals, yet clan leaders had less power than the Mayan and Aztec nobles.

3. Some tribes exerted influence over their immediate neighbors through trade or conquest; by A.D. 100 the Hopewells had spread their influence through Wisconsin and Louisiana.

4. The Hopewell trading network gradually collapsed around A.D. 400.

5. In the Southwest, the complex Mogollon culture developed by A.D. 600, and the Anasazi culture developed by A.D. 900; drought brought on the collapse of both of these cultures after A.D. 1150.

6. The advanced farming technology of Mesoamerica spread into the Mississippi Valley around A.D. 700; the Mississippian society was the last large-scale culture to emerge north of the Rio Grande.

7. By A.D. 1350 disease and warfare over fertile bottomlands led to the decline of the Mississippian civilization.

8. Eighteenth-century British settlers referred to the Indian peoples of this region as the "Civilized Tribes" because of their stable, agriculture-based way of life.

9. Horticulture was a significant part of the lives of the women of the eastern Woodland Indians, and because of the importance of farming, a matrilineal inheritance system developed.

10. Indian peoples ate better due to farming, but their populations grew slowly.

11. By A.D. 1500 there were no great Indian empires left to lead a military campaign against the European invasion.

II. Traditional European Society in 1450

A. The Peasantry

1. There were only a few large cities in western Europe before A.D. 1450; more than 90 percent of the population were peasants living in small rural communities.

2. Most peasants yearned to be yeomen, but few achieved that goal.

3. Cooperative farming was a necessity and most farm families exchanged their surplus farm products with their neighbors or bartered it for local services.

4. As with the Native American cultures, many aspects of European life followed a seasonal pattern.

5. Mortality rates among the peasants were high; life consisted of little food and much work.

6. The deprived rural classes of Britain, Spain, and Germany constituted the majority of white migrants to the Western Hemisphere.

B. Hierarchy and Authority

1. In the traditional European social order, authority came from above; kings and princes lived in splendor off the labor of the peasantry.

2. Collectively, noblemen had the power to challenge royal authority; after 1450 kings began to undermine the power of the nobility and create more centralized states.

3. The peasant man ruled his women and children; his power was justified by the teachings of the Christian church.

4. The inheritance practice of primogeniture forced many younger children to join the ranks of the roaming poor; there was little personal freedom or individual identity for these peasants.

5. Hierarchy and authority prevailed because they offered a measure of social stability, and these values later shaped the American social order well into the eighteenth century.

C. The Power of Religion

1. The Roman Catholic Church served as one of the great unifying forces in western European society; the Church provided a bulwark of authority and discipline.

2. Christian doctrine penetrated the lives of peasants; the merging of the sacred with the agricultural cycle endowed all worldly events with spiritual meaning.

3. Crushing other religions and suppressing heresies among Christians was an obligation of rulers and a task of the new orders of Christian knights.

4. Between A.D. 1096 and 1291, successive armies of Christians embarked on Crusades; Muslims were a prime target of the crusaders.

5. The Crusades strengthened the Christian identity of the European population and helped broaden the intellectual and economic horizons of the European privileged class.

III. Europe Encounters Africa and the Americas, 1450–1550

A. The Renaissance

1. Around 1450 Europeans engaged in a major revival of learning; the Renaissance had the most impact on the upper classes.

2. The artists and intellectuals of the Renaissance were humanists who celebrated individual human potential.

3. Following Niccolò Machiavelli’s advice in The Prince (1513), an alliance of monarchs, merchants, and royal bureaucrats challenged the power of the agrarian nobility.

4. The increasing wealth of the monarchical nation-state propelled Europe into its first age of expansion.

5. Because Arabs and Italians dominated trade in the Mediterranean, Prince Henry of Portugal sought an alternate oceanic route to Asia; under Henry’s direction, Portugal led European expansion overseas.

6. By the 1440s the Portuguese were the first Europeans engaged in the African slave trade.

B. West African Society and Slavery

1. Most West Africans farmed small plots and lived in extended families in small villages that specialized in certain crops; they traded goods with one another.

2. West Africans spoke many different languages and formed hundreds of distinct groups, the majority of which lived in hierarchical societies ruled by princes.

3. Their spiritual beliefs were varied; some were Muslim, but most recognized a variety of deities.

4. At first, European traders had a positive impact on the West African peoples because they introduced new plants, animals, and metal products to West Africa.

5. Europeans living in West Africa were stricken by disease, and their death rate was more than 50 percent a year.

6. Europeans soon joined the West African’s long-established trade in humans; by 1700 Europeans shipped hundreds of thousands of slaves to American plantations.

C. Europe Reaches the Americas

1. While they traded with the Africans, the Portuguese continued to look for a direct ocean route to Asia.

2. Bartholomew Días sailed around the southern tip of Africa in 1488.

3. In 1502 Vasco da Gama’s ships outgunned Arab fleets; the Portuguese government soon opened trade routes from Africa to Indonesia and up the coast of Asia to China and Japan.

4. The Portuguese replaced the Arabs as leaders in world commerce and African slave trade.

5. Spain followed Portugal’s example, but they sought a western route to the riches of the East.

6. Christopher Columbus, a Genoese sea captain, set sail on August 3, 1492, with the support of Spanish monarchs, Ferdinand and Isabella, and financially backed by Spanish merchants.

7. October 12, 1492, Columbus landed on what he thought was the "Indies" and called the native inhabitants "Indians"; he had actually landed at the present-day Bahamas.

8. Although Columbus found no gold, the monarchs sent three more voyages over the next twelve years; the Spanish monarchs wanted to make the New World their own.

D. The Spanish Conquest

1. In 1519 Hernando Cortés and his fellow Spanish conquistadors landed on the Mexican coast and overthrew the Aztec empire.

2. Moctezuma, the Aztec ruler, believed that Cortés might be a returning god and allowed him to enter the empire without challenge.

3. The empire’s collapse was mainly due to internal rebellion and death by disease.

4. In the late 1520s the Spanish conquest entered a new phase when Francisco Pizarro overthrew the Inca empire in Peru.

5. The Incas were also easy prey due to internal fighting over the throne and because of disease.

6. The conquests diminished the Native American population and survivors were forced to work on plantations.

7. The Spanish invasion of the Americas had a significant impact on life in Europe and Africa due to a process of transfer known as the "Columbian Exchange."

8. Native Americans lost part of their cultural identity; a new mestizo, or mixed race, culture emerged.

IV. The Protestant Reformation and the Rise of England, 1500–1620

A. The Protestant Movement

1. Over the centuries the Catholic Church became a large and wealthy institution, controlling vast resources throughout Europe.

2. Martin Luther publicly challenged Roman Catholic practices and doctrine with his Ninety-Five Theses; the document condemned the "sale of indulgences" by the Church.

3. Christians divided into camps of Catholics and Protestants; after 1517 Christianity was no longer a unifying force in Europe.

4. Southern German rulers installed Catholicism as their official religion, and Northern German rulers chose Lutheranism as their state creed.

5. Protestant John Calvin and his Institutes of the Christian Religion (1536) preached predestination, the idea that God determines who will be saved before they are born.

6. When the pope denied his request for a marriage annulment, King Henry VIII broke with the Roman Catholic Church and created a national Church of England.

7. Henry’s daughter, Elizabeth I, combined Lutheran and Calvinist beliefs; angered by Elizabeth, some radical Protestants took inspiration from the Presbyterian system.

8. Other radical Protestants called themselves Puritans; they wanted to "purify" the church.

B. The Dutch and the English Challenge Spain

1. King Philip II wanted to root Protestantism out of the Netherlands.

2. To protect their Calvinism and political liberties, the seven northern provinces of the Spanish Netherlands declared their independence in 1581 and became the Dutch Republic (or Holland).

3. In 1588 the Spanish Armada sailed out to reimpose Catholic rule in England and Holland but was defeated.

4. As Spain floundered, the Dutch Republic became the leading commercial power of Europe.

5. England’s economy was stimulated by a rise in population and "mercantilism," a system of state-supported manufacturing and trade.

6. Mercantilist-minded monarchs like Queen Elizabeth encouraged merchants to invest in domestic manufacturing, thereby increasing exports and decreasing imports.

7. The English and the Dutch could now challenge Spain’s monopoly in the Western Hemisphere.

C. The Social Causes of English Colonization

1. The "Price Revolution," major inflation, caused social changes in England; the English nobility were the first casualties of the Price Revolution.

2. In two generations, the price of goods tripled, but income from rents barely increased, causing aristocrats to lose wealth.

3. Yeomen and gentry gained wealth and were able to influence politics and give small landowners a voice.

4. Due to enclosures and inflation, many peasants lost the means to earn a living.

5. Peasants were willing to go to America as indentured servants; the stage was set for a substantial migration to America.

6. As land prices rose, yeomen looked to America for land for their children.

Chapter 2

I. Imperial Conflicts and Rival Colonial Models

A. New Spain: Colonization and Conversion

1. Spanish adventurers were the first Europeans to explore the southern and western United States.

2. By the 1560s their main goal was to prevent other Europeans from establishing settlements.

3. In 1565 Spain established St. Augustine, the first permanent European settlement in America; most of Spain’s other military outposts were destroyed by Indian attacks.

4. In response, the Spanish adopted The Comprehensive Orders for New Discoveries (1573) and employed missionaries.

5. Spanish rule was not benevolent, and many Indians questioned it.

6. In 1610 Santa Fe was established and the system of missions and forced labor was reestablished.

7. By 1680 many Pueblos in New Mexico were faced with extinction; the Pueblos eventually joined with the Spanish to protect their lands against nomadic Indians.

8. Spain maintained its northern empire but did not achieve religious conversion or cultural assimilation of the Native Americans.

9. The cost of expansion delayed the Spanish settlement of California.

B. New France: Furs and Souls

1. Quebec, established in 1608, was the first permanent French settlement; New France became a vast fur-trading enterprise.

2. The Hurons, in exchange for protection from the Iroquois, allowed French traders into their territory.

3. By providing a market for furs, the French set in motion a series of devastating Indian wars.

4. French missionaries did not use Indians for forced labor.

5. The French colonial system allowed the Indians to retain their traditional religious beliefs.

C. New Netherland: Commerce

1. The Dutch republic emphasized commerce over religious conversion.

2. In 1621 the West India Company had a trade monopoly in West Africa and exclusive authority to establish outposts in America.

3. The Company founded the town of New Amsterdam as the capital of New Netherland.

4. To encourage migration, the Company granted land along the Hudson River to wealthy Dutchmen.

5. New Netherland failed as a settler colony but flourished briefly in fur trading.

6. The West India Company came to ignore the floundering Dutch settlement.

7. After a 1664 English invasion, New Amsterdam subsequently accepted English rule.

D. The First English Model: Tobacco and Settlers

1. English merchants became the leaders of English expansion.

2. In 1607 the Virginia Company sent an expedition of men to North America, landing in Jamestown, Virginia; the goal of the Virginia Company was trade, not settlement.

3. Life in Jamestown was harsh: death rates were high, there was no gold and little food.

4. Tobacco became the basis of economic life in Jamestown.

5. To encourage English settlement, the Virginia Company granted land to freemen, established a headright system, and approved a system of representative government under the House of Burgesses.

6. An influx of settlers sparked war with the Indians but did not slow expansion; by 1630 English settlement in the Chesapeake Bay was well established.

II. The Chesapeake Experience

A. Settling the Tobacco Colonies

1. James I dissolved the Virginia Company and created a royal colony in Virginia.

2. The Church of England was established in Virginia and property owners paid taxes to support the clergy.

3. The model for royal colonies in America consisted of a royal governor, an elected assembly, and an established Anglican church.

4. Lord Baltimore wanted Maryland to become a refuge from persecution for English Catholics; settlement of Maryland began in 1634.

5. Baltimore granted the assembly the right to initiate legislation.

6. A Toleration Act was enacted in 1649 to protect Protestants and Catholics alike.

7. Demand for tobacco started an economic boom in the Chesapeake, attracting migrants, but diseases, especially malaria, kept population low and life expectancy short.

B. Masters, Servants, and Slaves

1. The great majority of migrants to Virginia and Maryland were indentured servants; most masters ruled with beatings and withheld permission to marry.

2. The first African workers fared even worse and their numbers remained small.

3. At first, Africans were not legally enslaved, although many served their masters for life.

4. Some Africans escaped bondage by becoming Christians or working a certain length of time.

5. In the 1660s Chesapeake legislatures began enacting laws that lowered the status of Africans; being a slave had become a permanent and hereditary condition.

C. The Seeds of Social Revolt

1. By the 1660s the Chesapeake tobacco market had collapsed and long-standing social conflicts flared up in political turmoil.

2. In an effort to exclude Dutch and other merchants, Parliament passed an Act of Trade and Navigation (1651), permitting only English or colonial-owned ships into American ports.

3. The number of tobacco planters increased, but profit margins were thin.

4. The Chesapeake colonies came to be dominated by elite planter-landlords and merchants.

5. Social tensions reached a breaking point in Virginia during William Berkeley’s regime; Berkeley gave tax-free land grants to himself and members of his council.

6. The corrupt House of Burgesses changed the voting system to exclude landless freemen; distressed property-holding yeomen rose in rebellion against the planter elite.

D. Bacon’s Rebellion

1. Poor freeholders wanted the Indians removed from the lands along the frontier.

2. Wealthy planter-merchants were opposed; they wanted to maintain the Indian labor supply and to continue trading for furs with the Native Americans.

3. Militiamen began killing Indians and the Indians retaliated by killing whites.

4. Not wanting the fur trade disrupted, Governor Berkeley proposed building frontier forts.

5. Nathaniel Bacon, a member of the governor’s council, led a protest against Berkeley’s strategy; Bacon and his men killed a number of Indians and triggered a political upheaval.

6. Realizing Bacon’s military power, Berkeley agreed to political reforms and restored voting rights to landless freemen.

7. Bacon’s men burned Jamestown to the ground and issued a "Manifesto and Declaration of the People," demanding removal of all Indians and an end to the rule of wealthy "parasites."

8. Bacon’s rebellion prompted tax cuts, a limit to the governor’s authority, and the expansion into Indian lands.

9. To forestall another rebellion, laws were enacted to legalize African slavery.

III. Puritan New England

A. The Puritan Migration

1. New England differed from other European settlements; it was settled by men, women, and children.

2. The Pilgrims, Puritans who were "Separatists" from England’s Anglican Church, sailed to America in 1620 on the Mayflower.

3. They created the Mayflower Compact, a covenant for religious and political autonomy and the first constitution in North America.

4. After having Anglican rituals forced upon their churches, Puritans sought refuge in America; in 1630 John Winthrop and 900 Puritans established the Massachusetts Bay colony.

5. Over the next decade, 10,000 Puritans migrated to Massachusetts Bay.

6. The Puritans created representative political institutions that were locally based.

7. The right to vote and hold office was limited to Puritan church members, and the Bible was the legal as well as spiritual guide for Massachusetts Bay.

B. Religion and Society, 1630–1670

1. Puritans eliminated bishops and devised a democratic church structure; influenced by John Calvin, they embraced predestination.

2. Puritans dealt with the uncertainties of divine election in three ways: "conversion experience"; "preparation"; and belief in a "covenant" with God.

3. Puritans of Massachusetts Bay felt they must purge their society of religious dissidents.

4. Roger Williams and other dissidents founded settlements in Rhode Island where there was no legally established church.

5. Anne Hutchinson was considered a heretic because her beliefs diminished the role of Puritan ministers.

6. In 1636 Thomas Hooker and others left Massachusetts Bay and founded Hartford; in 1639 the Connecticut Puritans adopted the Fundamental Orders.

7. Connecticut government included a representative assembly and elected governor.

8. Connecticut united church and state, but voting was not limited to church members.

9. With the failure of the English Revolution, Puritans looked to create a permanent society in America based on their faith and ideals.

C. The Puritan Imagination and Witchcraft

1. Puritans thought that the physical world was full of supernatural forces.

2. Between 1647 and 1662, Puritans hanged fourteen people for witchcraft.

3. In 1692 in Salem, Massachusetts, 175 people were arrested and 20 were hanged for witchcraft.

4. Popular revulsion against the executions dealt a blow to the dominance of religion in public life; there were no more legal prosecutions for witchcraft after 1692.

5. The European Enlightenment helped promote a more rational view of the world.

D. A Yeoman Society, 1630–1700

1. Puritans instituted land-distribution policies that encouraged the development of self-governing communities.

2. Puritans believed in a social and economical hierarchy: the largest plots of land were given to men of high social status.

3. All male heads of families received some land; a society of independent yeomen farmers emerged, and all had a voice in town meetings.

4. Town meetings chose selectmen, levied taxes, and enacted ordinances and regulations.

5. As the number of towns increased, so did their power, enhancing local control.

IV. The Indians’ New World

A. Puritans and Pequots

1. Seeing themselves as God’s chosen people, Puritans tried to justify taking Indian lands.

2. In 1636 Pequot warriors attacked English farmers who had intruded on their lands.

3. Puritan militiamen and their Indian allies massacred about 500 Pequots, and many of the Pequot survivors were sold into slavery.

4. English Puritans viewed the Indians as "savages" who did not deserve civilized treatment.

5. Disease, military force, and Christianization eventually subdued the Indians of New England.

6. By 1670 New England settlers were, at least temporarily, guaranteed safety.

B. Metacom’s War

1. By the 1670s, whites in New England numbered 55,000 while Indians numbered 16,000.

2. Seeking to stop the European advance, the Wampanoag leader Metacom forged an alliance with the Narragansett and Nipmuck peoples in 1675.

3. The group attacked white settlements throughout New England, and the fighting continued until Metacom’s death in 1676.

4. Losses were high on both sides, but the Indians losses were worse: 25 percent of the Indians’ already diminished population died from war or disease.

5. Many survivors were sold into slavery in the Caribbean, including Metacom’s family.

6. The defeated Algonquian peoples lost their land and the integrity of their traditional cultures.

C. The Fur Trade and the Inland Peoples

1. The greatest threat to Indian cultures came from wars and epidemics brought by the fur trade, nonetheless, the Iroquois fought to gain control of the fur trade with the French and Dutch.

2. The Iroquois allowed a number of Jesuit missionaries in Iroquoia.

3. In 1680 the Iroquois again had to battle for control of the fur trade.

4. Disease, sickness from liquor, and neglected artisan skills were the fur trade’s legacy.

5. Constant warfare shifted power from Indian elders to young warriors.

6. The fur trade profoundly altered the natural environment.

Chapter 3

Chapter Annotated Outline

I. The Politics of Empire, 1660–1713

A. The Restoration Colonies

1. Charles II gave the Carolinas to his aristocratic friends and gave his brother James, the Duke of York, the land between the Delaware and Connecticut rivers.

2. James took possession of New Netherland and named it New York; the adjacent land was established as New Jersey.

3. The proprietors of the new colonies sought to create a traditional social order with a gentry class and an established Church of England.

4. The Fundamental Constitutions of Carolina (1669) prescribed a manorial system with nobility and serfs.

5. Poor families in North Carolina refused to work on large manors and chose to live on modest farms.

6. South Carolinians imposed their own design of government and attacked Indian settlements to acquire slaves for trade.

7. South Carolina remained an ill-governed and violence-ridden frontier settlement until the 1720s.

8. Pennsylvania, designed as a refuge for Quakers persecuted in England, developed a pacifistic policy toward the Native Americans and became prosperous.

9. Penn’s Frame of Government (1681) guaranteed religious freedom for all Christians and allowed all property-owning men to vote and hold office.

10. Ethnic diversity, pacifism, and freedom of conscience made Pennsylvania the most open and democratic of the Restoration colonies.

B. From Mercantilism to Dominion

1. In the 1650s the English government imposed mercantilism, via the Navigation Acts, which regulated colonial commerce and manufacturing.

2. The Revenue Act of 1673 imposed a "plantation duty" on sugar and tobacco exports and created a staff of customs officials to collect it.

3. In wars between 1652 and 1674, the English ended Dutch supremacy in the West African slave trade. The English also dominated Atlantic commerce.

4. Many Americans resisted the mercantilist laws as burdensome and intrusive. To enforce the laws, English officials pursued a punitive legal strategy.

5. The accession of James II to the throne prompted English officials to create a centralized imperial system in America.

6. In 1686 the Connecticut and Rhode Island colonies were merged with those of Massachusetts Bay and Plymouth to form the Dominion of New England, a royal province.

7. Two years later New York and New Jersey were added to the Dominion.

8. Sir Edmund Andros, governor of the Dominion, was empowered to abolish existing legislative assemblies and rule by decree.

9. Andros advocated worship in the Church of England, banned town meetings, and challenged land titles.

10. The Puritans protested to the king regarding Andros’s demands, but their protests went unheeded.

C. The Glorious Revolution of 1688

1. In 1688 James’s wife gave birth to a son raising the prospect of a Catholic heir to the throne.

2. In response, Protestant Parliamentary leaders carried out a bloodless coup known as the Glorious Revolution.

3. Mary, James’s Protestant daughter by his first wife, and her husband William were enthroned.

4. Queen Mary II and William III accepted a Bill of Rights that limited royal prerogatives and increased personal liberties and parliamentary powers.

5. Parliamentary leaders relied upon John Locke’s Two Treatises on Government (1690) to justify their coup. Locke rejected divine right theories of monarchical rule.

6. Locke’s celebration of individual rights and representative government had a lasting influence in America.

7. The Glorious Revolution sparked colonial rebellions against royal governments in Massachusetts, Maryland, and New York.

8. In 1689 Andros was shipped back to England and the new monarchs broke up the Dominion of New England.

9. The monarchs did not restore Puritan-dominated government, instead they created a new royal colony of Massachusetts.

10. Colonies that were of minor economic or political importance retained their corporate governments or proprietary institutions while royal governors ruled the lucrative staple-producing settlements.

D. Imperial Wars and Native Peoples

1. Between 1689 and 1815 Britain and France fought wars for dominance of Western Europe.

2. These wars involved a number of Native American warriors armed with European weapons.

3. The Spanish Succession (1702–1713) pitted Britain against France and Spain.

4. So that they might help protect their English settlement, whites in the Carolinas armed the Creek peoples to fend off French and Spanish attacks.

5. The Creeks took this opportunity to become the dominant tribe in the region.

6. Native Americans also played a central role in the fighting in the Northeast; aided by the French the Abnakis and Mohawks took revenge on the Puritans.

7. The New York frontier remained quiet due to the fur trade and the Iroquois’ policy of "aggressive neutrality."

8. Britain used victories in Europe to win territorial and commercial concessions in the Americas in the Treaty of Utrecht (1713), solidifying Britain’s supremacy and bringing peace to North America.

II. The Imperial Slave Economy

A. The South Atlantic System

1. The South Atlantic system was composed of land seized from the Indians, slave labor from Africa, and investment capital from Europe.

2. English and French merchants developed sugar plantations in the West Indies beginning around 1650. Sugar was the most profitable crop in Europe and America.

3. Due to the Navigation Acts, by 1750 reexports of American sugar and tobacco accounted for half of all British exports.

4. Significant profits were made from the slave trade; 7 million slaves were brought to America between 1700 and 1810.

5. The slave trade changed West African society by promoting centralized states and military conquest.

6. African people of noble birth enslaved and sold those of lesser status.

7. The Atlantic trade prompted harsher forms of slavery in Africa, eroding the dignity of human life.

8. The Africans that were forced to endure the "Middle Passage" suffered the bleakest fate.

B. Slavery in the Chesapeake and South Carolina

1. After 1700 planters in Virginia and Maryland imported thousands of slaves and created a "slave society."

2. Slavery was increasingly defined in racial terms; in Virginia virtually all resident Africans were declared slaves.

3. Living conditions in Maryland and Virginia allowed slaves to live relatively long lives.

4. By the middle of the 1700s, American-born slaves formed a majority among Chesapeake blacks.

5. The slave population in South Carolina suffered many deaths and had few births; therefore, the importation of new slaves "re-africanized" the black population.

6. There were no American colonies in which any one African people or language became dominant.

C. African American Community

1. The acquisition of a common language and a more equal gender ratio were prerequisite for the creation of an African American community.

2. As enslaved blacks forged a new identity in America, their lives continued to be shaped by their African past.

3. African creativity was limited because slaves were denied education and had few material goods.

4. Slaves who resisted their rigorous work routine were punished with bodily harm, including amputation.

5. The Stono rebellion in South Carolina was the largest slave uprising of the eighteenth century.

6. White militiamen killed many of the Stono rebels and dispersed the rest, preventing a general uprising.

D. The Southern Gentry

1. As the southern colonies became slave societies, life changed for whites as well as blacks.

2. As men lived longer, patriarchy within the family reappeared.

3. The planter elite exercised authority over yeomen and black slaves.

4. To prevent rebellion, the southern gentry paid attention to the concerns of middling and poor whites.

5. By 1770 the majority of English Chesapeake families owned a slave, giving them a stake in the exploitive labor system.

6. Taxes were gradually reduced for the poorer whites, and poor yeomen and some tenants were allowed to vote.

7. In return, the planter elite expected the yeomen and tenants to elect them to office and defer to their power.

8. By the 1720s the gentry took on the trappings of wealth, modeling themselves after the English aristocracy.

9. The profits of the South Atlantic system helped form an increasingly well-educated, refined, and stable ruling class.

E. The Northern Maritime Economy

1. The South Atlantic system tied the whole British Empire together economically.

2. West Indian trade created the first American merchant fortunes and the first urban industries.

3. The expansion of Atlantic commerce in the eighteenth century fueled rapid growth in the North American interior as well as seaport cities and coastal towns.

4. A small group of wealthy landowners and merchants formed the top rank of the seaport society.

5. Artisan and shopkeeper families formed the middle ranks of seaport society, and laboring men, women, and children formed the lowest ranks.

6. Between 1660 and 1750, involvement in the South Atlantic system brought economic uncertainty as well as jobs to northern workers and farmers.

III. The New Politics of Empire, 1713–1750

A. The Rise of Colonial Assemblies

1. The triumph of the South Atlantic system changed the politics of empire. The British were content to rule the colonies with a gentle hand.

2. American representative assemblies wished to limit the powers of the crown and maintain their authority over taxes.

3. The colonial legislatures gradually won partial control of the budget and the appointment of local officials.

4. The rising power of the colonial assemblies created an elitist rather than a democratic political system.

5. Neither elitist assemblies nor wealthy property owners could impose unpopular edicts on the people.

6. Crowd actions were a regular part of political life in America and were used to enforce community values.

7. By the 1750s most colonies had representative political institutions that were responsive to popular pressure and increasingly immune to British control.

B. Salutary Neglect

1. "Salutary neglect," more relaxed royal supervision of internal colonial affairs, was a by-product of the political system developed by Sir Robert Walpole.

2. Radical Whigs argued that Walpole used patronage and bribery to create a strong Crown Party.

3. Landed gentlemen argued that Walpole’s high taxes and bloated royal bureaucracy threatened the liberties of the British people.

4. Colonists, maintaining that royal governors likewise abused their patronage powers, tried to enhance the powers of provincial representative assemblies.

C. Protecting the Mercantile System of Trade

1. Walpole’s main concern was to protect British commercial interests in America from the Spanish and the French.

2. Walpole arranged for Parliament to subsidize Georgia to protect the valuable rice colony of South Carolina.

3. To resist British expansion, Spanish naval forces sparked the War of Jenkins’s Ear in 1739.

4. Walpole used this provocation to launch a predatory war against Spain’s American Empire.

5. The War of Jenkins’s Ear became a part of a general European conflict bringing a new threat from France.

6. Militiamen captured the French naval fortress of Louisbourg but had to return it at war’s end in 1748.

7. Colonial merchants took advantage of a loophole in the Navigation Acts that allowed Americans to own ships and transport goods.

8. The Molasses Act of 1733 placed a high tariff on imports of French molasses, but sugar prices rose in the late 1730s, so the act was not enforced.

9. The Currency Act (1751) prevented colonies from establishing new land banks and prohibited the use of public currency to pay private debts.

10. In the 1740s British officials vowed to replace salutary neglect with rigorous imperial control.

Chapter 4 - Growth and Crisis in Colonial Society

Chapter Annotated Outline

I. Freehold Society in New England

A. Farm Families: Women’s Place

1. Men claimed power in the state and authority in the family; women were subordinate.

2. Women in the colonies were raised to be dutiful "helpmeets" to their husbands.

3. The labor of the Puritan women was crucial to rural household economy.

4. More women than men joined the churches so that their children could be baptized.

5. A gradual reduction in farm size prompted couples to have fewer children.

6. With fewer children, women had more time to enhance their families’ standard of living.

B. Farm Property: Inheritance

1. Men who migrated to the colonies escaped many traditional constraints, including landlessness.

2. When indentures ended for servants, some climbed from laborer, to tenant, to freeholder.

3. Children in successful farm families received a "marriage portion."

4. Parents chose their children’s partners because the family’s prosperity depended upon it.

5. Brides relinquished ownership of their land and property to their husbands.

6. Fathers had a cultural duty to provide inheritances for their children.

7. Farmers created whole communities composed of independent property owners.

C. The Crisis of Freehold Society

1. With each generation, the population of New England doubled, mostly from natural increase.

2. Parents had less land to give their children, so they had less control over their children’s lives.

3. Many families chose to have fewer children.

4. Families petitioned the government for land grants, and hacked new farms out of the forest.

5. Land was used more productively; crops of wheat and barley were replaced with high-yielding potatoes and corn.

6. These tactics helped preserve the freeholder ideal.

II. The Mid-Atlantic: Toward a New Society, 1720–1765

A. Economic Growth and Social Inequality

1. Fertile lands and long growing seasons attracted migrants to the mid-Atlantic.

2. As freehold land became scarce in New York, manorial lords attracted tenants by granting long leases and the right to sell improvements.

3. Early industrial technology kept most tenants from saving enough to acquire freehold farmsteads.

4. Rural Pennsylvania and New Jersey were initially marked by relative economic equality.

5. With the rise of the wheat trade and an influx of poor settlers, a class of wealthy agricultural capitalists gradually emerged.

6. Merchants and artisans took advantage of the supply of labor and organized an "outwork" system.

7. As colonies became crowded and socially divided, farm families feared a return to peasant status.

B. Cultural Diversity

1. The middle colonies were a patchwork of ethnically and religiously diverse communities.

2. Quakers, the dominant social group in Pennsylvania, were pacifists who dealt peaceably with Native Americans and condemned slavery.

3. The Quaker vision attracted many Germans fleeing war, religious persecution, and poverty.

4. Germans guarded their language and cultural heritage, encouraging their children to marry within the community.

5. Emigrants from Ireland formed the largest group of incoming Europeans.

6. Some Irish were Catholic but most were Presbyterian Scots who had faced discrimination and economic regulation in Ireland.

7. The Scots-Irish held onto their culture and promoted marriage within the Presbyterian church.

C. Religious Identity and Political Conflict

1. Ministers criticized the separation of church and state in Pennsylvania.

2. Religious sects in Pennsylvania enforced moral behavior through communal self-discipline.

3. Communal sanctions sustained a self-contained and prosperous Quaker community.

4. In the 1750s the Scots-Irish Presbyterians challenged the Quakers’ pacifism and demanded a more aggressive Indian policy.

5. Many German migrants opposed the Quakers and wanted laws that respected their inheritance customs and provided proportional representation in the provincial assembly.

6. The Scots-Irish and the Germans found it difficult to unite against the Quakers due to their own conflicts.

III. The Enlightenment and the Great Awakening, 1740–1765

A. The Enlightenment in America

1. Most Christians believed that the earth stood at the center of the universe and that God intervened directly in human affairs.

2. Enlightenment thinkers believed that people could observe, analyze, understand, and improve their world.

3. John Locke proposed that lives were not fixed by God’s will and could be changed through education and purposeful action. He advanced the theory that political authority was not divinely ordained but rather sprang from social compacts people made to preserve their natural rights to life, liberty, and property.

4. European Enlightenment ideas affected influential colonists’ beliefs about science, religion, and politics.

5. Some influential colonists, including inventor and printer Benjamin Franklin, turned to deism.

6. The Enlightenment added a secular dimension to colonial intellectual life.

B. Pietism in America

1. Less wealthy colonists turned to Pietism, which came to America with German migrants in the 1720s and sparked a religious revival.

2. Pietism emphasized pious behavior and the striving for a mystical union with God.

3. Beginning in 1739, the compelling George Whitefield transformed local revivals into a "Great Awakening."

4. Hundreds of colonists felt the "New Light" of God’s grace and were prepared to follow Whitefield.

C. Religious Upheaval in the North

1. Conservative, or "Old Light," ministers condemned the emotional preachings of traveling "New Light" ministers.

2. In Connecticut traveling preachers were prohibited from speaking to established congregations without the ministers’ consent.

3. Some farmers, women, and artisans condemned the Old Lights as "unconverted" sinners.

4. The Awakening undermined support of traditional churches and challenged the authority of ministers.

5. The Awakening gave a new sense of religious authority to many colonists in the North and reaffirmed communal ethics as it questioned the pursuit of wealth.

D. Social and Religious Conflict in the South

1. The social authority of the Virginia gentry was threatened as freeholders left the established church for New Light revivals.

2. Religious pluralism threatened the government’s ability to impose taxes to support the established church.

3. Anglicans closed down Presbyterian meetinghouses and forcefully broke up Baptist services to prevent the spread of the New Light doctrine.

4. During the 1760s many poorer Virginians were drawn to enthusiastic Baptist revivals, where even slaves were welcome.

5. The gentry reacted violently to the Baptist threat to their social authority and way of life.

6. Revivals helped shrink the gulf between blacks and whites and gave blacks a new sense of spiritual identity.

IV. The Midcentury Challenge: War, Trade, and Social Conflict, 1750–1765

A. The French and Indian War

1. Indians, who in 1750 still controlled the interior of North America, used their control of the fur trade to bargain with both the British and the French.

2. European governments began to refuse to bargain, and Indian alliances crumbled.

3. The escalating Anglo-American demand for Indian lands met with strong Indian resistance.

4. The Ohio Company obtained a royal grant of 200,000 acres along the upper Ohio River, land controlled by Indians.

5. To counter Britain’s movement into the Ohio Valley, the French set up a series of forts.

6. The French seized George Washington and his men as they tried to support the Ohio Company’s claim to the land.

7. Britain dispatched forces to America where they joined with the militia in attacking French forts.

8. In June 1755 British troops and militiamen captured the French fort Beauséjour and deported 10,000 French residents.

9. In July General Edward Braddock and his British troops were soundly defeated by a small group of French and Indians.

B. The Great War for Empire

1. In 1756 Britain and Prussia aligned against France and Austria in the Seven Years’ War.

2. Britain saw France as its main obstacle to further expansion in profitable overseas trading.

3. William Pitt, a committed expansionist, planned to cripple France by attacking its colonies.

4. The fall of Quebec, the heart of France’s empire, was the turning point of the war.

5. The British in India, West Africa, Cuba, and the Philippines overtook French trade.

6. The Treaty of Paris of 1763 granted British sovereignty over half the continent of North America.

7. In 1763 Pontiac and his Indian allies captured British garrisons and killed many settlers.

8. The Indian alliance gradually weakened and they accepted the British as their new political "fathers."

9. In return, the British established the Proclamation Line of 1763 barring settlers from going west of the Appalachians.

10. The war for empire only gained land for the crown and did not provide land for the expansionist-minded Americans.

C. British Economic Growth and the Consumer Revolution

1. Britain had unprecedented economic resources and it became the first industrial nation.

2. The new machines and business practices of the Industrial Revolution allowed Britain to sell goods at lower prices, particularly in the mainland colonies.

3. The first "consumer revolution" raised the living standard of many Americans.

4. Americans paid for British imports by increasing their exports of wheat, rice, and tobacco.

5. The first American spending binge landed many consumers in debt.

6. The loss of military contracts and subsidies made it difficult for Americans to purchase British goods.

7. Americans had become dependent on overseas creditors and international economic conditions.

D. Land Conflicts

1. The growth of the colonial population caused conflicts over land, particularly in Pennsylvania and Connecticut.

2. In the Hudson River Valley, Massachusetts settlers tried to claim manor lands, Wappinger Indians reasserted ownership to lands they had once owned, and tenants asserted ownership over land they leased.

3. British general Thomas Gage and his men joined local sheriffs to suppress these uprisings.

4. English aristocrats in New Jersey and the southern colonies successfully asserted legal claims to land based on outdated charters.

5. Proprietary power increased the resemblance between rural societies in Europe and America.

6. Tenants and freeholders had to search for cheap freehold land in the west.

E. Western Uprisings

1. Movement to the western frontier created new disputes over Indian policy, political representation, and debts.

2. Demands for the expulsion of Indians and the ensuing fights left a legacy of racial hatred and political resentment.

3. In 1763 the North Carolina Regulators, landowning vigilantes, wanted greater political rights, local courts, and lower taxes.

4. The Moderators, a rival group, forced the Regulators to accept the authority of the colonial government.

5. Tobacco prices plummeted after the Great War for Empire, forcing debt-ridden farmers into court.

6. Debtors joined with the Regulators to intimidate judges, close courts, and free their comrades from jail.

7. The royal governor mobilized the eastern militia against the Regulator force and the result was much bloodshed.

8. Tied to Britain, yet growing resistant of its control, America had the potential for independent existence.

Chapter 5: Toward Independence: Years of Decision, 1763-1775

I. The Imperial Reform Movement, 1763–1765

A. The Legacy of War

1. The Great War for Empire exposed the weak position of British royal governors and officials, prompting immediate administrative reforms.

2. To assert their authority the British began a strict enforcement of the Navigation Acts, and in 1762 Parliament passed a Revenue Act that curbed corruption in the customs service.

3. In 1763 the British ministry stationed a peacetime army in North America, indicating its willingness to use force to preserve its authority.

4. As Britain’s national debt soared, higher import duties were imposed at home on tobacco and sugar.

5. To collect the taxes, the government doubled the size of the British bureaucracy and granted it the power to arrest smugglers.

6. To reverse the development of debt and of a more powerful government, reformers demanded Parliament be made more representative of the property-owning classes.

B. The Sugar Act and Colonial Rights

1. As the war ended, British officials undertook a systematic reform of the imperial system.

2. George Grenville won approval of a Currency Act (1764) that banned the use of paper money as legal tender, thereby protecting the British merchants.

3. Grenville proposed the Sugar Act of 1764 to replace the widely evaded Molasses Act of 1733.

4. Americans argued that the Sugar Act was contrary to their constitution since it constituted a tax and "all taxes ought to originate with the people."

5. The Sugar Act closed a Navigations Act loophole by extending the jurisdiction of vice-admiralty courts to all customs offenses.

6. After living under a policy of salutary neglect, Americans felt that the new British policies challenged the existing constitutional structure of the empire.

7. British officials insisted on the supremacy of Parliamentary laws and denied that colonists were entitled to even the traditional legal rights of Englishmen.

C. An Open Challenge: The Stamp Act

1. British Prime Minister Grenville vowed to impose a stamp tax in 1765 unless the colonists would tax themselves.

2. The Stamp Act required small embossed markings on all court documents, land titles, and various other documents and served as revenue to keep British troops in America.

3. Benjamin Franklin proposed American representation in Parliament, but British officials rejected the idea, arguing that Americans were already "virtually represented" in Parliament.

4. Parliament also passed a Quartering Act directing colonial governments to provide barracks and food for the British troops stationed in the colonies.

5. For the colonists, a constitutional confrontation with the British arose over taxation, jury trials, quartering of the military, and representative self-government.

II. The Dynamics of Rebellion, 1765–1766

A. The Crowd Rebels

1. Patriots — defenders of American rights — organized protests, rioted, and articulated an ideology of resistance.

2. The Stamp Act Congress issued a set of Resolves against the loss of American "rights and liberties."

3. Most delegates of the Congress were moderate men who sought compromise, not confrontation.

4. Popular resentment was not easily contained as angry colonial mobs intimidated royal officials.

5. The leaders of the Sons of Liberty tried to direct the raw energy of the crowd against new tax measures, but some followers had other reasons for protesting.

6. Popular resistance throughout the colonies nullified the Stamp Act.

B. Ideological Roots of Resistance

1. Initially the American resistance movement had no acknowledged leaders and no central organization.

2. Patriot publicists and pamphlets drew on three intellectual traditions: English common law, the rationalist thought of the Enlightenment, and an ideological agenda based on the republican strand of the English political tradition.

3. The writings turned a series of riots and tax protests into a coherent political coalition.

C. Parliament Compromises, 1766

1. In Parliament different political factions advocated radically different responses to the American challenge.

2. Hard-liners were outraged and wanted to send British soldiers to suppress the riots and force Americans to submit to the supremacy of Parliament.

3. Old Whigs felt that America was more important for its trade than its taxes and advocated repeal of the Stamp Act.

4. British merchants favored repeal because American boycotts of British goods had caused decreased sales.

5. Former Prime Minister William Pitt saw the act as a "failed policy" and demanded that it be repealed.

6. Lord Rockingham repealed the Stamp Act and ruled out the use of troops against rioters.

7. The Sugar Act was modified, reducing the tax on French molasses but extending the tax to British molasses.

8. Imperial reformers and hard-liners were pacified with the Declaratory Act of 1766 which reaffirmed Parliament’s authority to make laws that were binding for American colonists.

III. The Growing Confrontation, 1767–1770

A. The Townshend Initiatives

1. Townshend devised a method of freeing royal officials from financial dependence on the American legislatures, enabling them to enforce Parliamentary laws and royal directives.

2. To secure revenue for the salaries of imperial officials in the colonies, the Townshend Act of 1767 imposed duties on paper, paint, glass, and tea imported to America.

3. The Revenue Act of 1767 created a Board of American Customs Commissioners and vice-admiralty courts.

4. New York first refused to comply with the Quartering Act of 1765.

5. The Restraining Act of 1767 suspended the New York assembly until it submitted to the Quartering Act.

6. The Restraining Act declared American governmental institutions completely dependent on Parliamentary favor.

B. America Again Debates and Resists

1. Colonists saw the Townshend duties as taxes that were imposed without their consent, which reinvigorated the American resistance movement.

2. Public support for nonimportation of British goods emerged, influencing colonial women as well as men, and triggered a surge in domestic production.

3. The boycott united Americans in a common political movement, but American resistance only increased British determination.

4. By 1768 American resistance had prompted a plan for military coercion, with 4,000 British regulars encamped in Boston, Massachusetts.

C. Lord North Compromises, 1770

1. In Britain a rising trade deficit with the Americans convinced some ministers that the Townshend duties were a mistake.

2. In 1770 Britain repealed the duties on manufactured items but retained the tax on tea as a symbol of Parliament’s supremacy.

3. Most Americans did not contest the symbolic levy and drank smuggled tea; even violence in New York City and the Boston Massacre did not rupture the compromise.

4. By 1770 the most outspoken Patriots had repudiated Parliamentary supremacy, claiming equality for the American assemblies.

IV. The Road to War, 1771–1775

A. The Tea Act: The Compromise Ignored

1. Samuel Adams established the Committees of Correspondence and formed a communication network between colonies that stressed colonial rights.

2. The Tea Act relieved the British East India Company of paying taxes on tea it imported to Britain or exported to the colonies; only American consumers would pay the tax.

3. The Tea Act made the East India Company’s tea cheaper than Dutch tea, which encouraged Americans to pay the Townshend duty.

4. Radical Patriots accused the ministry of bribing Americans to give up their principled opposition to British taxation.

5. The Patriots nullified the Tea Act by forcing the East India Company’s ships to return tea to Britain or to store it.

6. A scheme to land a shipment of tea and collect the tax led to a group of Americans throwing the tea into Boston Harbor.

7. In 1774 Parliament rejected a proposal to repeal the Tea Act and instead enacted four Coercive Acts to force Massachusetts into submission.

8. Many colonial leaders saw the Quebec Act (1774) as another demonstration of Parliament’s power to intervene in American domestic affairs.

B. The Continental Congress Responds

1. Delegates of the Continental Congress, a new colonial assembly, met in Philadelphia in September 1774.

2. Under Joseph Galloway’s proposal, America would have a legislative council selected by the colonial assemblies and a president-general appointed by the king.

3. Even though the council would have veto power over Parliamentary legislation, the plan was rejected and seen as being too conciliatory.

4. The First Continental Congress passed a Declaration of Rights and Grievances that condemned and demanded the repeal of the Coercive Acts and repudiated the Declaratory Act.

5. The Congress began a program of economic retaliation, beginning with nonimportation and nonconsumption agreements that went into effect December 1774.

6. The British ministry branded the Continental Congress an illegal assembly and refused to send commissioners to America to negotiate.

7. The ministry declared that Americans had to pay for their own defense and administration and acknowledge Parliament’s authority to tax them; they also imposed a blockade on American trade with foreign nations.

C. The Rising of the Countryside

1. Ultimately the success of the urban-led Patriot movement would depend upon the actions of the large rural population.

2. At first most farmers had little interest in imperial issues, but the French and Indian War, along with nonimportation movements, changed their attitudes.

3. Patriots appealed to the yeomen tradition of agricultural independence, as many northern yeomen felt personally threatened by British imperial policy.

4. Despite their higher standard of living, southern slaveowners had similar fears.

5. Many prominent Americans worried that resistance to Britain would destroy respect for all political institutions, ending in mob rule.

6. Other social groups, such as tenant farmers, the Regulators, and some enslaved blacks, refused to support the resistance movement.

7. Beginning in 1774 some prominent Americans of "loyal principles" denounced the Patriot movement and formed a small, ineffective pro-British party.

D. The Failure of Compromise

1. When the Continental Congress met in 1774, New England was already in open defiance of British authority.

2. In September General Gage ordered British troops to seize Patriot armories and storehouses at Charleston and Cambridge.

3. In response, 20,000 colonial militiamen mobilized to safeguard supply depots in Concord and Worcester.

4. On April 18, 1775, Gage dispatched soldiers to capture colonial leaders and supplies at Concord.

5. Forewarned by Paul Revere and others, the local militiamen met the British first at Lexington and then at Concord.

6. As the British retreated, militiamen ambushed them from neighboring towns with both sides suffering losses.

Chapter 6: War and Revolution, 1775-1783

Chapter Outline

I. Toward Independence, 1775–1776

A. The Second Continental Congress and Civil War

1. After losing battles at Breed’s Hill and Bunker Hill, in 1775 the Continental Congress created a Continental army headed by General George Washington.

2. Moderates passed an Olive Branch petition that expressed loyalty to the king and requested the repeal of oppressive parliamentary legislation.

3. Zealous Patriots won passage of a Declaration of the Causes and Necessities of Taking Up Arms.

4. The king refused the moderates’ petition and issued a Proclamation for Suppressing Rebellion and Sedition in August 1775.

5. In September the Patriot forces took Montreal in an invasion but later failed to capture Quebec.

6. American merchants cut off all exports to Britain and its West Indian sugar islands, and Parliament retaliated with a Prohibitionary Act, banning trade with rebellious colonies.

7. Lord Dunmore of Virginia organized two military forces — one white, one black — and offered freedom to slaves and indentured servants who joined the Loyalist cause.

8. Faced with black unrest and pressed by yeomen and tenant farmers demanding independence, Patriot planters called for a break with Britain.

B. Common Sense

1. Resolutions favoring independence came slowly because most Americans were deeply loyal to the crown.

2. By 1775 the Patriot cause was gaining greater support among artisans and laborers.

3. Many Scots-Irish in Philadelphia became Patriots for religious reasons, and some well-educated persons questioned the idea of monarchy altogether.

4. In January 1776 Thomas Paine published Common Sense, a call for independence and republicanism.

5. Common Sense aroused the general public and quickly turned thousands of Americans against British rule.

C. Independence Declared

1. On July 4, 1776, the Congress approved a Declaration of Independence.

2. Thomas Jefferson, the main author of the Declaration, justified the revolt by blaming the rupture on George III rather than on Parliament.

3. Jefferson proclaimed that "all men are created equal"; they possess the rights of "life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness"; and that government derives its power from the "consent of the governed."

4. By linking these doctrines with independence, Jefferson established revolutionary republicanism as a defining value of America.

5. Americans were ready to create republics, state governments that would derive their power from the people.

II. The Trials of War, 1776–1778

A. War in the North

1. Few observers thought that the rebels stood a chance of defeating the British; Great Britain had more people and more money with which to fight.

2. Prime Minister North wanted to capture New York City and seize control of the Hudson River.

3. General William Howe and his British troops landed outside New York City in July 1776, just as the Continental Congress was declaring independence in Philadelphia.

4. Outgunned and outmaneuvered, the Continental army retreated across the Hudson to New Jersey, then across the Delaware River to Philadelphia.

5. The British halted their campaign for the winter months, which allowed the Continental army a few minor triumphs and allowed the Congress to return from Boston to Philadelphia.

B. Armies and Strategies

1. General Howe’s military strategy was one of winning the surrender of opposing forces, rather than destroying them; this tactic failed to nip the rebellion in the bud.

2. General Washington’s strategy was to draw the British away from the seacoast, extending their lines of supply and draining their morale.

3. The Continental army drew most of its recruits from the lower ranks of society, the majority of whom fought for a bonus of cash and land, rather than out of patriotism.

4. Given all the handicaps, Washington was fortunate to have escaped an overwhelming defeat in the first year of the war.

C. Victory at Saratoga

1. To finance the war, the British ministry increased the land tax and prepared to mount a major campaign in 1777.

2. The primary British goal, the isolation of New England, was to be achieved with the help of General John Burgoyne, a small force of Iroquois, and General Howe.

3. Howe wanted to attack Philadelphia, home of the Continental Congress, and end the rebellion with a single victory.

4. Washington and his troops withdrew from Philadelphia, and the Continental Congress fled into the interior, determined to continue the fight.

5. General Burgoyne’s troops were forced to surrender to General Horatio Gates and his men at Saratoga, New York.

6. The American victory at Saratoga was the turning point of the war and virtually assured the success of a military alliance with France.

D. Social and Financial Perils

1. Tens of thousands of civilians were exposed to deprivation, displacement, and death as the War of Independence became a bloody partisan conflict.

2. Patriots organized Committees of Safety to collect taxes and gather support for the Continental army.

3. On the brink of bankruptcy, the new state governments as well as the Continental Congress printed paper money that was worth very little.

4. The excess of currency helped spark the worst inflation in American history; there was more currency, albeit worthless, but fewer goods available for purchase.

5. Merchants and farmers turned to barter or sold goods only to those who could pay in gold or silver.

6. The shortage of goods caused civilian morale and social cohesion to crumble; some doubted that the rebellion could succeed.

7. The Continental army suffered from lack of necessities; the winter of 1777–1778 at Valley Forge took as many lives as two years of fighting.

III. The Path to Victory, 1778–1783

A. The French Alliance

1. Although France and America were unlikely partners, the French were intent on avenging their loss of Canada to Britain in the French and Indian War.

2. Upon learning of the American victory at Saratoga, French foreign minister Comte de Vergennes sought a formal alliance with the Continental Congress.

3. The Treaty of Alliance of 1778 specified that neither France nor America would sign a separate peace agreement before America’s independence was assured.

4. Alliance with the French gave the American army access to supplies and money, strengthening the army and giving it new hope.

5. The war became increasingly unpopular in Britain as its people grew tired of being taxed, while some actually agreed with Americans’ demands for greater rights.

6. In 1778 Parliament repealed the Tea and Prohibitionary Acts and renounced its power to tax the colonies.

7. Britain’s offer to return to the constitutional condition that existed before the Sugar and Stamp Acts was rejected by the Continental Congress.

B. War in the South

1. American allies had ulterior motives for joining the war: France concentrated its forces in the West Indies because it wanted to capture a rich sugar island; Spain lent naval assistance to France because it wanted to regain Florida and Gibraltar.

2. The British strategy was to capture the rich tobacco- and rice-growing colonies and to take advantage of racial divisions in the South.

3. By the end of 1779 Sir Henry Clinton and his men had reconquered Georgia, and in 1780 Lord Cornwallis and his men took control of South Carolina.

4. The tide of the battle turned when the Dutch declared war against Britain and France sent troops to America.

5. General Nathaniel Greene devised a new military strategy: divide the militiamen into small groups with strong leaders so they could harass the less mobile British.

6. Abandoned by the British navy, and surrounded by the French navy and Washington’s Continental army, Cornwallis surrendered at Yorktown in October 1781.

7. Isolated diplomatically in Europe, stymied militarily in America, and lacking public support at home, Britain gave up active prosecution of the war.

C. The Patriot Advantage

1. There were many reasons the colonies were able to defeat the British.

2. The Patriots were led by experienced politicians who demanded, and received, public support.

3. The Continental army was fighting on its own territory with the assistance of militiamen, as well as support from France.

4. While Britain suffered mediocre generals, America had great generals like George Washington who recruited outstanding officers to shape the new army.

5. Patriots could mobilize the militia quickly at crucial moments to assist the Continental army.

6. Americans refused to support Loyalist forces or accept imperial control in British-occupied areas.

D. Diplomatic Triumph

1. In the Treaty of Paris, signed September 1783, Great Britain recognized independence of its seaboard colonies and relinquished claims to lands south of the Great Lakes.

2. This land, between the Appalachian Mountains and the Mississippi River, was the domain of undefeated, pro-British Indian peoples.

3. The American government promised to allow British merchants to recover prewar debts and to encourage the return of Loyalist property and grants for citizenship.

4. The British made peace with France and Spain with the signing of the Treaty of Versailles.

IV. Republicanism Defined and Challenged

A. Republican Ideals under Wartime Pressures

1. For many Americans, republicanism was a social philosophy: every man in a republic belonged to his country.

2. Continental army troops and militiamen were praised for giving to the republic, but as the war raged on, military self-sacrifice declined.

3. Currency inflation transferred most of the cost of the war to ordinary American families and posed a severe challenge to the notion of public virtue.

B. The Loyalist Exodus

1. As the war turned in favor of the Patriots, thousands of Loyalists emigrated to the West Indies, Britain, and Canada.

2. In general, the revolutionary upheaval did not alter the structure of rural communities.

3. Social turmoil was greatest in the cities as Patriot merchants replaced Tories at the top of the economic ladder.

C. The Problem of Slavery

1. The Patriots’ struggle for independence from Britain raised the prospect of freedom for enslaved Africans; many slaves sought freedom by fleeing behind British lines.

2. Many slaves also fought for the Patriot cause.

3. In 1782 Virginia passed an act allowing the liberation of slaves; within a decade, 10,000 slaves had been freed.

4. Pietist groups advocated emancipation, and Enlightenment philosophy also worked to undermine slavery and racism.

5. By 1804 every state north of Delaware had enacted laws to provide for the termination of slavery.

6. Emancipation came slowly because whites feared competition for jobs and housing and a melding of the races.

7. In the South slaves represented a huge financial investment, and resistance against freedom for blacks was strong.

8. The debate over emancipation among southern whites ended in 1800 when a group of slaves was hanged for planning an uprising.

9. Whites would redefine republicanism so that it only applied to the master race.

D. A Republican Religious Order

1. In 1776 the Virginia constitutional convention issued a Declaration of Rights guaranteeing all Christians the "free exercise of religion."

2. After the Revolution, an established church and compulsory religious taxes were no longer the norm in America.

3. Thomas Jefferson’s Bill for Establishing Religious Freedom made all churches equal before the law but granted financial support to none.

4. The separation of church and state was not complete because most church property and ministers were exempt from taxation.

5. Many states enforced religious criteria for voting and officeholding, although the practice was often condemned by Americans.

Chapter 7: The New Political Order, 1776-1800

Chapter Annotated Outline

I. Creating Republican Institutions, 1776–1787

A. The State Constitutions: How Much Democracy?

1. In 1776 Congress urged Americans to suppress royal authority and establish new governing institutions by writing state constitutions.

2. The Declaration of Independence stated that governments derive "their just powers from the consent of the governed."

3. Pennsylvania’s constitution abolished property owning as a test of citizenship, allowed all male taxpayers to vote and hold office, and created a unicameral legislature with complete power.

4. John Adams devised a system of government that dispersed authority by assigning lawmaking, administering, and judging to separate branches.

5. Adams called for a bicameral legislature in which the upper house, filled with property-owning men, would check the power of the popular majorities in the lower house.

6. Patriots endorsed Adams’s system because it preserved representative government while restricting popular power.

7. The legislature emerged as the dominant branch of government and state constitutions apportioned seats on the basis of population.

8. Upper-class women entered into the debate but remained second-class citizens unable to participate directly in politics.

9. The republican quest for educated citizenry provided the avenue for the most important advances made by American women.

B. The Articles of Confederation

1. The Articles of Confederation were passed by Congress in November 1777 and ratified in 1781.

2. The Articles provided for a loose confederation in which each state retained its independence as well as the powers and rights not "expressly delegated" to the United States.

3. The confederation government was given the authority to declare war and peace, make treaties, adjudicate disputes between states, print money, and requisition funds from the states.

4. A major weakness under the Articles was that Congress lacked the authority to impose taxes.

5. Congress chartered the Bank of North America hoping to use its notes to stabilize the inflated Continental currency.

6. Congress asserted the Confederation’s title to the trans-Appalachian west in order to sell it and raise additional revenue for the government.

7. The Northwest Territory was established and three ordinances in the 1780s provided for its settlement while reducing the prospect of secessionist movements.

C. Shays’s Rebellion

1. In the East, peace brought recession: the British Navigation Acts barred Americans from trading with the British West Indies and low-priced British goods flooded American markets.

2. Many states allowed debtors to pay in installments while other states printed more paper currency in an effort to extend credit.

3. The lack of debtor-relief legislation in Massachusetts provoked an armed uprising led by Captain Daniel Shays and known as Shays’s Rebellion.

4. To preserve its authority, Massachusetts passed a Riot Act outlawing illegal assemblies.

5. Shays’s army dwindled during the winter of 1786–87 and was dispersed by Governor James Bowdoin’s military force.

6. Many families who had suffered while supporting the war felt that they had traded one kind of tyranny for another; others feared the fate of the republican experiment.

II. The Constitution of 1787

A. The Rise of a Nationalist Faction

1. Money questions dominated the postwar agenda and officials looked at them from a national rather than a state perspective.

2. Without tariff revenues Congress could not pay the interest on foreign debt, but key commercial states in the North and most planters in the South opposed national tariffs.

3. In 1786 the Virginia legislature met to discuss tariff and taxation policies and called for a convention in Philadelphia and a revision of the Articles of Confederation.

B. The Philadelphia Convention

1. In May 1787 delegates from every state except Rhode Island arrived in Philadelphia; most were "moneyed men" who supported creditors’ property rights and a central government.

2. George Washington was elected as presiding officer, and it was agreed that each state would have one vote and that the majority of states would decide an issue.

3. The delegates exceeded their mandate to revise the Articles of Confederation and considered James Madison’s Virginia Plan for national government.

4. Madison’s plan favored national authority, called for a national republic that drew its authority from all the people and had direct power over them, and created a three-tiered national government.

5. The plan had two flaws: citizens would oppose the national government’s vetoing state laws, and small states would object because they would have less influence than larger states.

6. Delegates from the small states preferred the New Jersey Plan that strengthened the Confederation but preserved the states’ control over their laws.

7. The Virginia Plan was passed by a bare majority, but the final plan had to be acceptable to existing political interests and social groups.

8. A "Great Compromise" was accepted wherein the Senate would seat two members from each state while seats in the House would be appointed on the basis of population.

9. The convention vested the judicial powers of the United States "in one supreme Court" and left the national legislature to decide whether to establish lower courts.

10. The convention placed the selection of the president in an electoral college chosen on a state-by-state basis.

11. Congress was denied the power to regulate slavery for twenty years and a fugitive clause was agreed upon.

12. The Constitution was to be the supreme law of the land, and national government was given power over taxation, military defense, and external commerce.

13. The Constitution, signed on September 17, 1787, mandated that the United States honor the national debt and restricted the ability of states’ governments to assist debtors.

C. The People Debate Ratification

1. The Constitution would go into effect upon ratification in at least nine of the thirteen states.

2. Nationalists began calling themselves "Federalists" and launched a political campaign supporting the proposed Constitution.

3. Antifederalists, opponents of the Constitution, feared losing their power at the state level and pointed out that it lacked a declaration of individual rights.

4. Well-educated Americans with traditional republican outlooks wanted the nation to remain a collection of small sovereign republics tied together only for trade and defense.

5. The Federalists pointed out that national authority would be divided among a president, a bicameral legislature, and a judiciary and that each branch would check and balance the other.

6. Addressing an Antifederalist argument, Federalists promised to amend the Constitution with a bill of rights.

7. The narrow ratification of the Constitution brought an end to the Revolutionary era and the temporary ascendancy of the democratically inclined state legislatures.

D. The Federalists Implement the Constitution

1. Federalists swept the election of 1788; members of the Electoral College chose George Washington as president and John Adams became vice president.

2. The Constitution gave the president the power to appoint major officials with the consent of the Senate, but Washington insisted that only the president could remove them.

3. The Judiciary Act of 1789 created a hierarchical federal court system with thirteen district courts, as well as three circuit courts to hear appeals.

4. The Judiciary Act permitted constitutional matters to be appealed to the Supreme Court, which had the final say.

5. The Federalists added the Bill of Rights to the Constitution, which safeguarded certain fundamental rights and mandated certain legal procedures to protect the individual.

III. The Political Crisis of the 1790s

A. Hamilton’s Financial Program

1. The Federalists divided into two irreconcilable factions over financial policy, with Alexander Hamilton and Thomas Jefferson defining contrasting views of the American future.

2. Alexander Hamilton, secretary of the treasury, devised bold and controversial policies to enhance the authority of the national government and to favor financiers and seaport merchants.

3. Hamilton’s Report on the Public Credit asked Congress to redeem millions of dollars in securities issued by the Confederation, providing windfall profits to speculators.

4. The House rejected James Madison’s proposal for helping the shopkeepers, farmers, and soldiers who were the original owners of the Confederation securities.

5. Congress approved Hamilton’s second proposal that the national government assume the war debts of the states, unleashing a flurry of speculation and some governmental corruption.

6. Hamilton asked Congress to charter the Bank of the United States, to be jointly owned by private stockholders and the national government.

7. Washington signed the legislation creating the bank, although Jefferson and Madison charged that a national bank was unconstitutional.

8. In 1792 Congress imposed a variety of domestic excise taxes and modestly increased tariffs on foreign imports.

9. Increased trade and customs revenue allowed the treasury to pay for Hamilton’s redemption and assumption programs.

B. Jefferson’s Agrarian Vision

1. By 1793 most northern Federalists adhered to the political alliance led by Hamilton and most southerners to a rival group headed by Madison and Jefferson, the Republicans.

2. Jefferson pictured a West settled by farm families whose grain and meat would feed Europeans, in exchange for clothing and other comforts.

3. During the 1790s Jefferson’s vision was fulfilled as warfare disrupted European farming.

4. Simultaneously, a boom in the export of raw cotton boosted the economy of the lower South.

C. The French Revolution Divides Americans

1. American merchants profited from the European war because a Proclamation of Neutrality allowed American citizens to trade with both sides.

2. The American merchant fleet became one of the largest in the world, commercial earnings rose, and work was available to thousands of Americans.

3. Even as they prospered from the European struggle, Americans argued passionately over its ideologies.

4. The ideological conflicts sharpened the debate over Hamilton’s economic policies and brought on disruptions such as the Whiskey Rebellion.

5. In 1793 the Royal Navy began to prey on American ships bound for France from the West Indies.

6. To avoid war, John Jay was sent to Britain and returned with a treaty that Republicans denounced as too conciliatory.

7. As long as the Federalists were in power, the United States would have a pro-British foreign policy.

D. The Rise of Political Parties

1. State and national constitutions made no provisions for political parties because they were considered unnecessary and dangerous.

2. Merchants and creditors favored Federalist policies, while the Republican coalition included support from farmers, artisans, Germans and the Scots-Irish.

3. During the election of 1796 the Federalists celebrated Washington’s achievements and Republicans invoked the egalitarian principles of the Declaration of Independence.

4. Federalists elected John Adams as president and he continued Hamilton’s pro-British foreign policy.

5. Responding to the XYZ affair, the Federalist-controlled Congress cut off trade with France and authorized American privateers to seize French ships.

E. Constitutional Crisis, 1798–1800

1. To silence its critics, the Adams administration enacted a series of coercive measures: the Naturalization Act, the Alien Act, and the Sedition Act.

2. Republicans charged that the Sedition Act violated the First Amendment’s prohibition against abridging the freedom of speech or of the press.

3. The Kentucky legislature declared the Alien and Sedition Acts to be void.

4. Virginia passed a similar resolution and set forth a "states’ rights" interpretation of the Constitution.

5. Republicans strongly supported Jefferson’s bid for the 1800 presidency.

6. Adams rejected the advice of Federalists to declare war on France and instead negotiated an end to the fighting.

7. Jefferson won a narrow 73 to 65 victory in the Electoral College, but Republicans also gave 73 votes to Aaron Burr, sending the election to the House of Representatives.

8. Federalists in the House blocked Jefferson’s election until Hamilton persuaded them otherwise.

9. The bloodless transfer of power demonstrated that governments elected by the people could be changed in an orderly way, even amidst bitter partisan conflict and foreign crisis.

Chapter 8: Westward Expansion and A New Political Economy, 1790-1820

Chapter Annotated Outline

I. Westward Expansion

A. Native American Resistance

1. In 1784 the United States used military threat to force the pro-British Iroquois to sign the Treaty of Fort Stanwix and relinquish much of their land in New York and Pennsylvania.

2. Farther to the west, the United States induced Indian peoples to give up most of the future state of Ohio.

3. The Indians formed a Western Confederacy to protect themselves against aggressive settlers and forced a peace compromise in the Treaty of Greenville in 1795.

4. The treaty encouraged Americans to pressure Native Americans to give up their land, while enabling Indian peoples to demand payment in return.

5. American westward migration increased as soon as the fighting ended, sparking new conflicts over land and hunting rights.

6. Most Native Americans resisted attempts to assimilate them into white society and rejected European farming practices.

B. The Changing Agricultural Economy

1. Most migrants who flocked through the Cumberland Gap were white tenant farmers and yeomen families fleeing the depleted soils and planter elite of the Chesapeake region.

2. Cotton financed the expansion of slavery into the Old Southwest as technological breakthroughs increased the demand for raw wool and cotton.

3. To provide land for their children, communities organized a migration from New England into New York and states west.

4. Farmers fleeing declining prospects in the East found themselves at the bottom of the economic ladder in New York due to a lack of markets.

5. Farmers changed their agriculture methods — rotating crops, diversifying production, and planting year-round — helping create a higher output and a better standard of living.

C. The Transportation Bottleneck

1. Without access to waterways or other cheap means of transportation, settlers west of the Appalachians would be unable to send goods to market.

2. Improved inland trade became a high priority for the new state governments that actively encouraged transportation ventures.

3. Only after 1819 with the construction of the Erie Canal could inland farmers sell their goods in eastern markets.

4. Western settlers paid premium prices for land along navigable rivers, and farmers and merchants built barges to float goods to the port of New Orleans.

5. Many isolated western settlers had no choice but to be self-sufficient; self-sufficiency meant a low standard of living.

6. Settlers continued to migrate westward, confident that the canal and road system would yield future security.

II. The Republicans’ Political Revolution

A. The Jeffersonian Presidency

1. Thomas Jefferson was the first chief executive to hold office in the District of Columbia, the national capitol.

2. Before John Adams left office, the Federalist-controlled Congress had passed the Judicial Act.

3. Adams filled the judgeships and courts with "midnight appointments." Republicans repealed the Judiciary Act.

4. In Marbury v. Madison, Chief Justice John Marshall asserted the principle of judicial review.

5. Jefferson challenged many Federalist policies and led efforts to shrink the size and power of the national government.

6. Following the lead of Federalists before him, Jefferson granted a reduced bribe ("tribute") to the Barbary Pirates to keep them from raiding American ships.

7. In domestic matters, Jefferson set a clearly Republican course: he abolished internal taxes; reduced the size of the army; and tolerated the Bank of the United States.

B. Jefferson and the West

1. As president, Jefferson seized the opportunity to increase the flow of settlers to the West; Republicans passed laws reducing the minimum acreage allotment.

2. In 1801 Napoleon Bonaparte coerced Spain into returning Louisiana to France; then he directed Spanish officials to restrict American access to New Orleans.

3. To avoid hostilities with France, Jefferson instructed Robert R. Livingston, American minister in Paris, to negotiate the purchase of New Orleans.

4. In April 1803, Bonaparte, Livingston, and James Monroe concluded what came to be known as the Louisiana Purchase.

5. Since it did not provide for adding new territory, Jefferson pragmatically accepted a loose interpretation of the Constitution.

6. In 1804 Jefferson sent Meriwether Lewis and William Clark on an expedition; they returned two years later with maps of the new territory.

7. Fearing that western expansion would diminish their power, New England Federalists talked openly of leaving the Union.

8. Alexander Hamilton accused Aaron Burr of participating in a conspiracy to destroy the Union, and Burr shot Hamilton to death in a duel.

9. The Republicans’ policy of western expansion increased sectional tension and party conflict, giving new life to states’ rights sentiment and secessionist schemes.

C. Conflict with Britain and France

1. As the Napoleonic Wars ravaged Europe, Great Britain and France refused to respect the neutrality of American merchant vessels.

2. Napoleon imposed the "Continental System," which required customs officials to seize neutral American ships that had stopped in Britain.

3. The British seized American ships carrying goods to Europe and also searched for British deserters.

4. Americans were outraged in 1807 when a British warship attacked the Chesapeake killing or wounding twenty-one men and seizing four.

5. Jefferson devised the Embargo Act of 1807, which prohibited American ships from leaving their home ports until Britain and France repealed restrictions on U.S. trade.

6. The act caused American exports to plunge, prompting Federalists to demand its repeal.

7. James Madison replaced the embargo with new economic restrictions, none of which persuaded Britain and France to respect America’s neutrality rights.

8. Southern and western war hawks, hoping to gain new territory and discredit the Federalists, pushed Madison toward war with Britain.

D. The War of 1812

1. The War of 1812 was a near disaster for the United States, both militarily and politically.

2. Political divisions in the United States prevented a major invasion of Canada in the East; New Englanders opposed the war and Boston merchants declined to lend money to the government.

3. After two years of sporadic warfare, the United States had made little progress along the Canadian frontier and was on the defensive along the Atlantic.

4. In the Southwest, Andrew Jackson led an army of militiamen to victory over British-supported Creek Indians in the Battle of Little Horseshoe Bend.

5. While the Federalists were meeting in Hartford, British troops landed at New Orleans, threatening to cut off the West’s access to the sea.

6. American military setbacks strengthened opposition to the war, but fortunately, Britain wanted peace.

7. The Treaty of Ghent, signed December 24, 1814, restored the prewar borders of the United States.

8. Victory at New Orleans made Andrew Jackson a national hero and symbol of the emerging West.

9. As a result of John Quincy Adams’s diplomatic initiatives, the United States gained undisputed possession of nearly all the land south of the forty-ninth parallel and between the Mississippi River and the Rocky Mountains.

III. The Capitalist Commonwealth

A. A Merchant-Based Economy: Banks, Manufacturing, and Markets

1. America was a nation of merchants, and to finance enterprises, Americans needed a banking system.

2. In 1791 Congress chartered the First Bank of the United States; however, it did not survive. The second Bank of the United States was created in 1816.

3. Many banks issued notes without adequate specie reserves and made ill-advised loans to insiders.

4. The Panic of 1819 gave Americans their first taste of the business cycle’s periodic expansion and contraction of profits and employment.

5. Merchant-entrepreneurs developed a rural-based manufacturing system similar to the European outwork, or putting-out, system.

6. The penetration of the market economy into rural areas motivated farmers to produce more goods.

7. At first, barter transactions were a central feature of the emergent market system, but gradually a cash economy replaced the barter system.

8. The new market system decreased the self-sufficiency of families and communities even as it made them more productive.

B. Public Policy: The Commonwealth System

1. Throughout the nineteenth century, state governments had a much greater impact on the day-to-day lives of Americans than did the national government.

2. As early as the 1790s, state legislatures devised an American plan of mercantilism, known as the "commonwealth system."

3. State legislatures granted hundreds of corporate charters to private businesses to build roads, bridges, and canals to connect inland market centers to seaport cities.

4. Incorporation often included a grant of limited liability and transportation charters included the power of eminent domain.

C. Federalist Law: John Marshall and the Supreme Court

1. Both Federalists and Republicans endorsed the idea of the commonwealth system, but their differences emerged during John Marshall’s tenure on the Supreme Court.

2. In deciding that the Judiciary Act violated the Constitution, Marshall overturned a national law and explicitly claimed that the Supreme Court had the power of judicial review (Marbury v. Madison, 1803).

3. The doctrine of judicial review evolved slowly; the Supreme and state courts used it sparingly and only to overturn state laws that conflicted with constitutional principles.

4. Marshall preferred a loose construction of the Constitution and asserted the dominance of national statutes over state legislation (McCulloch v. Maryland, 1819, and Gibbons v. Ogden, 1824).

5. Under Marshall, the Supreme Court construed the Constitution so that it extended protection to the property rights of individuals purchasing state-owned lands (Fletcher v. Peck, 1810, and Dartmouth College v. Woodward, 1819).

6. The Republican Party divided into a "national" faction and a "Jeffersonian," or state-oriented, faction.

7. Nationalist-minded Republicans won the allegiance of many Federalists in the East while Jeffersonian Republicans won the support of western farmers and southern planters.

Chapter 8 Identifiers

Treaty of Fort Stanwix

Western Confederacy

Fallen Timbers

Treaty of Greenville

Virginia Dynasty

Revolution of 1800

John Marshall

Marbury v. Madison

Judicial review

Albert Gallatin

Louisiana Purchase

Lewis and Clark

Aaron Burr

The Chesapeake Affair

Embargo Act of 1807

Tecumseh

Tenskwatawa

William Henry Harrison

War of 1812

Treaty of Ghent

Battle of New Orleans

Adams-Onis Treaty

Panic of 1817

limited liability

eminent domain

Era of Good Feelings

Chapter 9: The Quest for a Republican Society, 1790-1820

Chapter Annotated Outline

I. Democratic Republicanism

A. Social and Political Equality for White Men

1. Republican ideology proclaimed legal equality for all free men, yet Americans accepted social divisions if they were based on personal achievements.

2. Some Americans from long-distinguished families questioned the morality of a social order based on mobility and financial success.

3. By the 1810s republicanism meant voting rights for all free white men.

4. Americans increasingly rejected the deferential political views of Federalists who called for "a speaking aristocracy in the face of a silent democracy."

5. As the political power of middling and poor white men grew, the rights and status of white women and free blacks declined.

B. Republican Marriage and Motherhood

1. European and American husbands had long dominated their wives and controlled the family’s property.

2. Women argued that the subordination of women was at odds with the republican belief in equal natural rights.

3. Economic and cultural changes eroded customary paternal authority, as parents could no longer use land as an incentive to control their children’s lives and marriages.

4. Rather than seeking to control them, fathers now sought to protect the best interests of their children.

5. Theoretically, the republican ideal of "companionate" marriage gave wives equality with their husbands; in reality, husbands still controlled the property.

6. The main responsibilities of a married woman were running the household and raising the children.

7. At the beginning of the nineteenth century, the United States experienced a sharp decline in the birth rate.

8. Fewer children meant fathers could provide more adequately for each, while mothers were no longer willing to spend all their active years bearing and rearing children.

9. Political leaders called upon women to become "republican wives" and "republican mothers" who would shape the characters of American men.

10. Christian ministers readily embraced the idea of republican motherhood, and some envisioned a public role for women based on their domestic virtues.

C. Raising and Educating Republican Children

1. Unlike the English custom of primogeniture, most American states required the estate of a man be divided among all his children if he died without a will.

2. Some felt that republicanism encouraged American parents to relax parental discipline and give their children greater freedom.

3. Well-to-do Americans influenced by the Enlightenment believed children were "rational creatures" who could be trained to act properly and responsibly.

4. By contrast, many poor families influenced by the Second Great Awakening had much stricter, authoritarian parents.

5. The values taught within families were crucial because most education took place within the home.

6. Although the constitutions of many states encouraged the use of public resources to fund primary schools, there was not much progress until the 1820s.

7. Noah Webster’s "blue-backed speller," first published in 1783, gave Americans of all backgrounds a common vocabulary and grammar.

II. Aristocratic Republicanism and African American Culture

A. The North and the South Grow Apart

1. After 1800 regional differences increased as the northern states ended slavery and the southern states expanded their slave-based agricultural economy.

2. Hundreds of black communities were torn apart as southern whites moved their plantations and slaves, looking for more fertile land in the Mississippi Valley.

3. African American families were also divided as members of the family were "sold South" through a new domestic slave trade.

4. Northerners had hoped slavery would die out with the demise of the Atlantic slave trade, but those hopes were dashed as slavery expanded into the Southwest.

5. A controversy over slavery raged on for two years as states with constitutions permitting slavery joined the Union.

6. The Missouri Compromise of 1820 set the precedent for future admission of states in pairs — one free and one slave — and slavery was not allowed to extend north of the 36º 30' parallel.

7. The fate of the western lands, the Union, and the black race had become intertwined and had raised the specter of civil war.

B. The Southern Social Order

1. The slaveholding planter elite saw themselves as natural aristocrats and indulged in displays of conspicuous consumption.

2. The elite defended slavery as a "necessary evil" to maintain white living standards and prevent racial warfare; they pointed out that the Hebrews had owned slaves and that God had not condemned them for it.

3. Slaveowners in the state legislature imposed relatively higher taxes on the properties of yeomen, while exempting their own slave property from taxes.

4. The legislatures forced all white men to serve in patrols and militias that deterred slaves from running away or rising in rebellion.

5. Wealthy planters wanted a workforce content with the drudgery of agricultural work and, therefore, made little or no effort to provide ordinary whites with any education.

6. Planters discouraged the growth of manufacturing by concentrating their resources in cotton and slaves.

7. Prosperity was limited primarily to the 25 percent of the white population that owned plantations and slaves, dashing the political and social equality hoped for during the Revolution.

C. Slave Society and Culture

1. The end of the transatlantic slave trade in 1809 gradually created an entirely American-born black population.

2. The movement of slavery into the Old Southwest slowly reduced cultural differences among slaves.

3. While African cultural elements remained important, free blacks in both the North and South consciously created a distinct African American community.

4. Southern states prohibited legal marriages between slaves, so the slaves devised their own marriage rituals.

5. Many recently imported slaves gave their children African names to maintain their cultural identity.

6. Some blacks won the right to labor "by the task" and were able to spend their free time working their own private fields.

7. In theory, masters had unlimited power over their slaves, but in practice, social conventions and slave resistance limited their powers.

8. Slaveowners devised a new gang-labor system with overseers, which was designed to increase slave output.

9. A few blacks plotted mass uprisings and murders, but slaves lacked the strong institutions needed to organize a successful rebellion.

D. The Free Black Population

1. Between 1790 and 1820 the number of free blacks rose from 8 percent to 13 percent of the total African American population.

2. Free blacks were usually forbidden to vote, attend public schools, or sit next to whites in churches; only Vermont and Maine allowed free blacks to vote.

3. A few free blacks in the North achieved great distinction: the mathematician Benjamin Banneker, the painter Joshua Johnston, and the merchant Robert Sheridan among them.

4. To prove their free status, blacks had to carry manumission documents, and even then, they had to be careful of being kidnapped and sold back into slavery.

5. Some skilled African Americans formed benevolent societies and churches, such as the African Methodist Episcopal (AME), that provided programs for their communities.

6. Gradually free and enslaved African Americans saw themselves as one people, and free blacks sought to win freedom for all people of African ancestry.

III. Protestant Christianity as a Social Force

A. The Second Great Awakening

1. Churches that prospered in the new nation were those that adopted a republican outlook, proclaiming doctrines of spiritual equality.

2. During the Second Great Awakening, the Congregationalist, Episcopalian, and Quaker churches declined in relative membership while the Methodist and Baptist grew spectacularly.

3. "Circuit riders" established new churches by bringing families together for worship, and then appointing lay elders to enforce moral discipline until the circuit rider’s return.

4. Black Christianity developed as a religion of emotional fervor and stoical endurance; the Christian message of salvation helped many slaves endure their bondage.

5. Ministers began stressing human ability and individual free will, making American religious culture more compatible with republican doctrines of liberty and equality.

6. For some, individual salvation became linked with social reform through the concept of "religious benevolence."

7. Unlike the First Great Awakening, the Second Great Awakening fostered cooperation between denominations.

8. Protestants across the nation saw themselves as part of a single religious movement that could change the course of history through politics.

B. Women’s New Religious Roles

1. Women formed a majority in many denominations and assumed a new leading role in many Protestant churches in the North; they became active in religion and charitable work partly because they were excluded from other spheres of public life.

2. The new practice of having church services for males and females together was accompanied by greater moral self-discipline.

3. Women’s religious activities and organizations were scrutinized and sometimes seen as subversive of the social order.

4. By the 1820s mothers across the nation had founded local maternal associations to encourage Christian child rearing.

5. Religious activism advanced female education as churches established seminaries and academies where girls received intellectual training and moral instruction.

6. Women gradually displaced men as public school teachers because women had few other opportunities and were willing to accept lower pay.

7. Christian republicanism in the South fostered aristocratic republicanism, while in the North it fostered a democratic republican society.

Chapter 9 Identifiers:

Property Qualification

Sentimentalism

Companionate marriage

Missouri Compromise

Gabriel Prosser

Denmark Vessy

Second Great Awakening

Chapter 10: The Economic Revolution, 1820-1860

Chapter Annotated Outline

I. The Coming of Industry: Northeastern Manufacturing

A. Division of Labor and the Factory

1. Industrialization came to the United States after 1790 as merchants and manufacturers increased output of goods by reorganizing work and building factories.

2. The "outwork system" was a more efficient division of labor and lowered the price of goods, but it eroded workers’ control over the pace and conditions of work.

3. For tasks not suited to outwork, factories were created where work was concentrated under one roof and divided into specialized tasks.

4. Manufacturers used stationary steam engines to power their mills and used power-driven machines and assembly lines to produce goods.

B. The Textile Industry and British Competition

1. With new machinery and division of labor, merchants achieved dramatic gains in productivity, threatening Britain’s industrial leadership.

2. Britain prohibited the export of textile machinery and the emigration of mechanics who knew how to build it; many mechanics disguised themselves as ordinary laborers and set sail.

3. Samuel Slater brought to America a design for an advanced cotton spinner; the opening of his factory in 1789 marked the advent of the American Industrial Revolution.

4. America had an abundance of natural resources, but British companies were better established, had cheap shipping rates, lower interest rates, and cheaper labor.

5. Congress passed protective legislation in 1816 and 1824 levying high taxes on imported goods; tariffs were reduced again in 1833, and some textile firms went out of business.

6. Americans copied and then improved upon British technology. The Waltham Plan recruited farm women and girls who would work for low wages as textile workers.

7. Women often found this work oppressive, but many gained a new sense of freedom and autonomy.

8. By combining improved technology, female labor, and tariff protection, the Boston Manufacturing Company sold textiles more cheaply than the British did.

C. American Mechanics and Technological Innovation

1. The most important inventors of the 1820s were members of the Sellars family, who in 1824 helped found the Franklin Institute of Philadelphia.

2. As mechanic institutes were established in other states, American mechanics pioneered the development of machine tools, thus fueling the spread of the Industrial Revolution.

3. In the firearms industry, interchangeable and precision-crafted parts enabled large-scale production.

4. The volume of output and subsequent availability caused some products — Remington rifles, Singer sewing machines, and Yale locks — to become household names.

5. After the 1851 Crystal Palace Exhibition in London, Americans built factories in Britain and soon dominated many European markets.

D. Wage Workers and the Labor Movement

1. More and more white Americans left self-employment and became wage earners, though they had little job security or control over their working conditions.

2. Some journeymen formed unions and bargained with their employers, particularly in hopes of setting a ten-hour workday; the Mechanics’ Union of Trade Associations set forth a broad program of reforms.

3. The Working Men’s Party, founded in 1828, called for the abolition of banks, equal taxation, and a system of public education.

4. By the mid-1830s many urban employers had been forced to accept a ten-hour workday.

5. Artisans whose occupations were threatened by industrialization — shoemakers, printers, etc. — were less successful, and some left their employers and set up specialized shops.

6. In 1830 factory workers banded together to form the Mutual Benefit Society to seek higher pay and better conditions, and in 1834 the National Trades Union was founded.

7. Union leaders devised a "labor theory of value" and organized strikes for higher wages; these strikes prompted strikes by women textile workers too.

8. Men replaced many of the women leaving the mills, foreshadowing the emergence of a predominately male system of factory labor.

9. By the 1850s supply exceeded demand and unemployment rose to 10 percent, resulting in a major recession with the Panic of 1857.

II. The Expansion of Markets

A. Migration to the Southwest and the Midwest

1. After 1820 three great streams of people migrated to the West, some looking for land for their children, others looking for greater profits from the western soil.

2. Migration occurred in three great streams: southern plantation owners moved into the Old Southwest; small-scale farmers from the upper South moved into the Old Northwest; and crowded New Englanders flowed to the west.

3. Congress reduced the price of federal land in 1820, and by 1860 the population center of America had shifted to the west.

B. The Transportation Revolution Forges Regional Ties

1. The National Road and other interregional, government-funded highways were too slow and expensive to transport efficiently goods and crops.

2. Americans developed a water-borne transportation system of unprecedented size, beginning with the government-subsidized Erie Canal.

3. Thousands of New Englanders moved into the Great Lakes Basin to avoid the overcrowded New England states.

4. The Erie Canal brought prosperity to central and western New York, linked the economies of the Northeast and Midwest, and prompted a national canal boom.

5. The invention of the steamboat ensured the success of the water-borne transportation system.

6. The Supreme Court encouraged this national system of transportation by striking down state controls over interstate commerce (Gibbons v. Ogden, 1824).

7. The development of the railroad created ties between the Northeast and the Midwest, and by the 1850s railroads became the main carriers of freight.

8. By the 1830s midwestern entrepreneurs were producing goods — John Deere plows, McCormick and Hussey reapers — to replace the ones Americans had been importing from Britain.

9. Southern investors concentrated their resources in cotton and slaves and used their profits to buy manufactures from the Northeast and Britain.

10. The South remained predominantly agricultural and did not provide a majority of its people with a rising standard of living.

C. The Growth of Cities and Towns

1. Due to the expansion of industry and trade, the urban population grew fourfold between 1820 and 1840.

2. The most rapid growth occurred in the new industrial towns that sprang up along the fall line, where it was necessary for the loads to be moved to another form of transportation.

3. By 1860 the largest cities in the United States were New York, Philadelphia, St. Louis, and Chicago, in that order.

4. In 1817 New York merchants founded the New York Stock Exchange, the nation’s chief market for securities.

5. New York’s growth stemmed primarily from its control of foreign trade; by 1840 New York handled almost two-thirds of foreign imports and almost half of all foreign trade.

III. Changes in the Social Structure

A. The Business Elite

1. The Industrial Revolution shattered the traditional rural social order as people were pulled into the cities, where some became very rich.

2. In the cities the richest 1 percent of the population owned 40 percent of all tangible property and an even larger share of the stocks and bonds.

3. The government taxed tangible property but almost never taxed stocks, bonds, or inheritances; thus government policies allowed further accumulation of wealth for the richest.

4. The wealthiest families began to consciously set themselves apart, and many American cities became class-segregated communities.

B. The Middle Class

1. A distinct middle class culture emerged as the per capita income of Americans rose about 2.5 percent per year between 1830 and the Panic of 1857.

2. Middle-class Americans were concerned with material comfort and education for their children, and they stressed discipline, morality, and hard work.

3. The business elite and the middle class regarded work as socially beneficial.

4. The upper and middle classes were tied together by the ideal of the "self-made man," which became a central theme of American popular culture.

C. The New Urban Poor

1. The bottom 10 percent of the labor force, the casual workers, owned little or no property and their jobs were unpredictable, seasonal, and dangerous.

2. Other laborers had greater job security, but few prospered; many families sent their children out to work, and the death of one parent often sent the family into dire poverty.

3. By the 1830s urban factory workers and unskilled laborers lived in well-defined neighborhoods of crowded boardinghouses or tiny apartments, often with unsanitary conditions.

4. Many wage earners turned to alcohol as a form of solace; by 1830 the per capita consumption of alcohol was over three times present-day levels.

5. Grogshops and tippling houses appeared on almost every block in working-class districts, and police were unable to contain the lawlessness that erupted.

D. The Benevolent Empire

1. During the 1820s Congregational and Presbyterian ministers linked with merchants and their wives to launch a program of social reform and regulation.

2. The Benevolent Empire targeted drunkenness and other social ills, but it also set out to institutionalize charity and combat evil in a systematic fashion.

3. They established institutions to control people who were threats to society and to assist those in need.

4. Women played an active role in the Benevolent Empire: upper-class women supported a number of charitable organizations.

5. Some reformers believed that one of the greatest threats to morality was the decline of the traditional sabbath.

6. Popular resistance or indifference limited the success of the Benevolent Empire.

E. Revivalism and Reform

1. Presbyterian minister Charles Grandison Finney conducted emotional revivals that stressed conversion rather than instruction; Finney’s ministry drew upon and accelerated the Second Great Awakening.

2. Finney’s message that man was able to choose salvation was particularly attractive to the middle class.

3. Finney wanted to humble the pride of the rich and relieve the shame of the poor by celebrating their common fellowship in Christ.

4. The business elite joined the "Cold Water" movement, establishing savings banks and Sunday schools for the poor and helping provide relief for the unemployed.

5. The American Temperance Society adapted the methods that worked so well in the revivals and took them into northern towns and southern rural hamlets.

6. Evangelical Protestantism helped lower alcohol consumption, reinforce work ethics, and strengthen a sense of common identity between the upper and middle classes.

F. Immigration and Cultural Conflict

1. Between 1840 and 1860 millions of immigrants — Irish, Germans, and Britons — were placing new strains on the American social order.

2. Most avoided the South, and many Germans moved to states in the Midwest, while other Germans and most of the Irish settled in the Northeast.

3. The most prosperous immigrants were the British, followed by the Germans; the poorest were from Ireland.

4. Many Germans and most Irish were Catholics and fueled the growth of the Catholic Church in America.

5. In 1834 Samuel F. B. Morse published Foreign Conspiracy against the Liberties of the United States, which warned of a Catholic threat to American republican institutions.

6. Anti-Catholic sentiment intensified: mobs of unemployed workers attacked Catholics, and the Native American Clubs called for limits on immigration.

7. Many reformers wanted to prevent the diversion of tax resources to Catholic schools and to oppose alcohol abuse by Irish men.

8. In most large northeastern cities, differences of class and culture led to violence and split the North in the same way that race and class divided the South.

Chapter 11: A Democratic Revolution, 1820-1844

Chapter Annotated Outline

I. The Rise of Popular Politics, 1820–1829

A. The Decline of the Notables and the Rise of the Parties

1. In America’s traditional agricultural society, wealthy notables dominated the political system and managed local elections by building up an "interest."

2. In the Midwest and the Southwest where there was a broad male franchise, "middling" men were elected to office and listened to the demands of the ordinary citizens.

3. To deter migration to the western states, the elites in most eastern legislatures grudgingly accepted a broader franchise for their states.

4. Between 1818 and 1821 some eastern states reapportioned legislatures on the basis of population and instituted more democratic forms of local government.

5. People began to turn to government to advance business, religious, and cultural causes.

6. As the power of the notables declined, the political party emerged as the organizing force in the American system of government.

7. Parties were political machines that wove the diverse threads of social groups and economic interests into a coherent legislative program.

8. Between 1817 and 1821 Martin Van Buren created the first statewide political machine, and he later organized the first nationwide political party, the Jacksonian Democrats.

9. Van Buren argued that political parties kept the government from abusing its power, and he insisted that state legislators follow the majority decisions of a party meeting, or caucus.

B. The Election of 1824

1. With the advance of political democracy, the aristocratic Federalist Party virtually disappeared and the Republicans broke up into competing factions.

2. The election of 1824 had five candidates — all calling themselves Republicans: John Quincy Adams, John C. Calhoun, William H. Crawford, Henry Clay, and Andrew Jackson.

3. Congress selected William Crawford, yet the other candidates refused to accept the selection and sought support among ordinary voters.

4. Although Jackson received nationwide support, no candidate received an absolute majority in the electoral college, so members of the House of Representatives had to choose the president.

5. Clay assembled a coalition of congressmen that voted for Adams, and Adams repaid Clay by appointing him secretary of state.

6. Jacksonians in Congress condemned Clay for arranging this "corrupt bargain."

C. The Last Notable President: John Quincy Adams

1. Adams embraced the American System proposed by Clay: protective tariffs, federally subsidized internal improvements, and a national bank.

2. Adams’s policies favored the business elite of the Northeast and the entrepreneurs and commercial farmers in the Midwest but won little support among southern planters.

3. Congress defeated most of Adams’s proposals, approving only a few navigation improvements and a short extension of the National Road.

4. A new tariff of 35 percent on imported goods enraged the South, which now had to buy either higher-cost northeastern goods or highly-taxed British goods.

D. "The Democracy" and the Election of 1828

1. Southerners refused to support Adams’s bid for a second term: most were offended that he supported the land rights of Indians and blamed him for the new "Tariff of Abominations."

2. Adams felt that the country should ask for his services; Van Buren and politicians handling Old Hickory’s campaign had no reservations about "running" for office.

3. The "Democratic-Republicans" eventually became simply "Democrats" and their name conveyed their message: the majority rules — the democracy.

4. Jackson’s message and image as a rugged outdoorsman and soldier appealed to a variety of social groups, and in 1828 he became the first president from a western state. His popularity frightened the northern business elite.

II. The Jacksonian Presidency, 1829–1837

A. Jackson’s Agenda: Patronage and Policy

1. To decide policy, Jackson primarily relied on his so-called "Kitchen Cabinet" — an informal group of advisors.

2. Using the spoils system, Jackson created a loyal and disciplined national party, and he also insisted on rotation in office.

3. Jackson’s main priority was to destroy Clay’s American System.

B. The Tariff and Nullification

1. Although the Tariff of 1828 helped Jackson win the election, it saddled him with a major political crisis.

2. In November 1832 the South Carolina state convention adopted an Ordinance of Nullification, which declared the tariffs of 1828 and 1832 null and void and threatened secession.

3. John C. Calhoun maintained that the U.S. Constitution had been ratified by state conventions; therefore, a state convention could declare a congressional law null and void.

4. Jackson repudiated his vice president’s ideas and asserted that nullification was unauthorized and destructive.

5. Congress passed a Force Bill authorizing the use of the army and navy to force South Carolina’s obedience, and at the same time legislation was passed to reduce tariffs.

6. South Carolina rescinded its nullification of the tariff, and Jackson established the principle that no state could nullify a law of the United States.

C. The Bank War

1. By collecting notes and regularly demanding specie, the Second Bank of the United States kept state banks from issuing too many notes — preventing monetary inflation and higher prices.

2. Most Americans did not understand the regulatory role of the Second Bank and feared its ability to force bank closures, which left them holding worthless paper.

3. Jackson’s opponents persuaded the Second Bank’s president to request an early recharter; they had hoped Jackson’s veto would split Democrats before the election of 1832.

4. Jackson vetoed the bank bill and became a public hero; he declared that the Second Bank promoted the advancement of the few at the expense of the many.

5. Jackson won the election of 1832, jettisoned Calhoun as vice president, and chose Martin Van Buren instead.

6. Jackson had Secretary of the Treasury Roger B. Taney withdraw the government’s gold from the Second Bank and deposit it in state "pet" banks.

7. Jackson opponents in the Senate passed a resolution censuring the president for acting independently of Congress, although Jackson continued to oppose the bank and turned it into a state-chartered bank in Pennsylvania.

8. Jackson had reinvigorated the Jeffersonian tradition of limited, frugal government; defended the Union during the nullification crisis; and greatly expanded the authority of the president.

D. Indian Removal

1. In the late 1820s whites in both the West and East called for the resettlement of the Indians west of the Mississippi River.

2. Jackson endorsed Indian removal in his inaugural address in 1829 and quickly began to implement it.

3. Indian peoples still controlled vast tracts of land, and in 1827 the Cherokees adopted a constitution and proclaimed themselves a separate nation within the United States.

4. The Georgia legislature declared that the Cherokees were merely tenants on state-owned land, and Jackson agreed; he withdrew the federal troops that had protected Indian enclaves.

5. The Indian Removal Act of 1830 provided territory in modern-day Oklahoma and Kansas to Indians who would give up their ancestral holdings.

6. Jackson sent troops and applied diplomatic pressure to force seventy Indian peoples to sign treaties and move west of the Mississippi.

7. Cherokee Nation v. Georgia (1831) denied Indian independence; however, in Worchester v. Georgia (1832) the Supreme Court voided Georgia’s extension of state law over the Indians.

8. Upon Martin Van Buren’s orders, General Winfield Scott’s army marched the Cherokees 1,200 miles to the new Indian Territory — the journey is remembered as the Trail of Tears.

9. The national government asserted its control over most eastern Indian peoples and forced their removal to the West.

E. The Jacksonian Impact

1. Appointed chief justice of the Supreme Court by Jackson, Roger B. Taney persuaded the Court to give constitutional legitimacy to Jackson’s policies of antimonopoly and states’ rights.

2. In Charles River Bridge Co. v. Warren Bridge Co. (1837), Taney’s ruling undermined the legal positions of chartered corporations and encouraged competitive enterprise.

3. In 1837 Taney’s decisions enhanced the regulatory role of state governments (Mayor of New York v. Miln) and restored some of the states’ economic powers (Briscoe v. Bank of Kentucky).

4. Most states mounted a constitutional revolution — extending the vote to all white men, reapportioning legislatures on the basis of population, and mandating the election of officials.

5. The new state constitutions changed the "republican" governments to "liberal" regimes that limited the power of the state and protected taxpayers from state debt.

6. Jacksonian "populists" embraced a small-government and a laissez-faire outlook; they attacked government-granted special privileges and celebrated the power of the ordinary people.

III. Class, Culture, and the Second Party System

A. The Whig Worldview

1. The rise of the Democracy and Jackson’s tumultuous presidency sparked the creation in the mid-1830s of a second national party — the Whigs.

2. Whigs, whose goal was a political world dominated by men of ability and wealth, sought votes among evangelical Protestants and middle- and working-class citizens in the North.

3. Northern Whigs called for a return to Clay and Adams’s American System; Southern Whigs advocated economic development but did not support high tariffs and social mobility.

4. The Whigs faced Martin Van Buren in the election of 1836; Van Buren emphasized his opposition to the American System and his support for "equal rights."

5. The Whigs ran four regional candidates in the election in hopes of throwing the contest to the House, which they controlled, but the plan failed and Van Buren won.

B. Labor Politics and the Depression of 1837–1843

1. Like the Democrats, the Working Men’s parties demanded equal rights and attacked legislation that created chartered corporations and monopolistic banks.

2. Taking advantage of the economic boom of the early 1830s, workers formed unions to bargain for higher wages and organized General Trade Union federations.

3. Employers attacked the union movement and brought lawsuits to overturn closed shop agreements that required them to hire only union members.

4. The resistance of workers and their supporters preserved them from legal attack.

5. The Panic of 1837 began when the Bank of England sharply curtailed the flow of money and credit to the United States.

6. Americans withdrew specie from domestic banks to pay their foreign loans and commercial debts, setting off a financial crisis as domestic banks suspended all payments in specie.

7. The American economy fell into deep depression: canal construction fell by 90 percent; prices dropped nearly 50 percent; and unemployment rose to 20 percent in some areas.

8. The depression devastated the labor movement by depleting the membership of unions and destroying their bargaining power; by 1843 most unions had disappeared.

9. During the depression, Commonwealth v. Hunt upheld the rights of workers to form unions and enforce a closed shop and Van Buren established a ten-hour day for federal employees.

C. "Tippecanoe and Tyler Too!"

1. The Whigs blamed Jackson’s policies for the Panic of 1837, and as Van Buren had just entered office, the public turned its anger on him because he did nothing to stop the downturn.

2. Van Buren’s Independent Treasury Act of 1840 actually delayed recovery because it took specie out of state banks and put it in government vaults.

3. In 1840 the Whigs nominated William Henry Harrison for president and John Tyler for vice president.

4. Harrison was not a strong leader, but the Whigs wanted someone who would rubber-stamp their programs for protective tariffs and a national bank.

5. The contest — the great "log-cabin" campaign — was the first time two well-organized parties competed for the loyalties of a mass electorate.

6. The Whigs boosted their political hopes by welcoming women to their festivities.

7. Harrison was voted into the White House and the Whigs had a majority in Congress, but a month later Harrison died of pneumonia and Tyler became president.

8. Tyler — who was more like a Democrat when it came to economic issues — was hostile toward the Second Bank and the American System.

9. Tyler favored the common man and the rapid settlement of the West, so he approved the Preemption Act of 1841.

10. The split between Tyler and the Whigs allowed the Democrats to regroup and recruit more supporters; the Democrats remained the majority party in most parts of the nation.

11. The democratic revolution perpetuated many problematic practices — denying some groups a voice in politics — and introduced the spoils system and a coarser standard of public debate.

12. The United States now had universal white male suffrage and a highly organized system of representative government that was responsive to ordinary citizens.

Chapter 12: Religion and Reform, 1820-1860

Chapter Annotated Outline

I. Individualism

A. Emerson and Transcendentalism

1. Ralph Waldo Emerson was the leading spokesman for transcendentalism, an intellectual movement that began in New England.

2. Emerson saw people as being trapped in inherited customs and institutions; remaking themselves depended on their discovery of their own "original relation with Nature."

3. Emerson’s genius lay in his capacity to translate vague ideas into examples that made sense to ordinary middle-class Americans.

4. Emerson believed that all nature was saturated with the presence of God, and he criticized the new industrial society, predicting that it would drain the nation’s spiritual energy.

5. Emerson’s message reached hundreds of thousands of people through writings and through lectures on the Lyceum circuit.

6. Emerson celebrated the individual who was liberated from social controls but self-disciplined and restrained.

B. Emerson’s Literary Influence

1. Emerson urged American writers to celebrate democracy and individual freedom and to find inspiration in the familiar.

2. Henry David Thoreau heeded Emerson’s call and turned to the American environment for inspiration; in 1854 he published Walden, Or Life in the Woods.

3. Thoreau became an advocate for social nonconformity and a philosopher for civil disobedience.

4. Margaret Fuller, also a writer, began a transcendental discussion group for elite Boston women and published Woman in the Nineteenth Century.

5. Fuller believed that women also had a mystical relationship with God and that every woman deserved psychological and social independence.

6. Walt Whitman — a teacher, journalist, and publicist for the Democratic Party — wrote Leaves of Grass, which recorded his attempt to pass a number of "invisible boundaries."

7. Whitman did not seek solitude but rather perfect communion with others; he celebrated democracy as well as himself, arguing that a poet could claim a profoundly intimate, mystical relationship with a mass audience.

8. Nathaniel Hawthorne (The Scarlet Letter, 1850) and Herman Melville (Moby-Dick, 1851) addressed the opposition between individual transcendence and social order, discipline, and responsibility.

C. Brook Farm

1. Transcendentalists and other radical reformers created ideal communities called utopias; the most important was Brook Farm, founded in 1841, where members hoped to develop their minds and souls and uplift society through inspiration.

2. Brook Farmers supported themselves by selling goods from their farm but organized their farming so that they remained independent of the market cycles.

3. The intellectual life at the farm was electric; all the major transcendentalists were residents or frequent visitors.

4. Brook Farm failed to achieve economic sustainability, and after a fire in 1846 the organizers disbanded and sold the farm.

II. Communalism

A. The Shakers

1. Led by "Mother" Ann Lee Stanley, the Shakers were the first successful American communal movement.

2. The Shakers accepted the common ownership of property, a strict government by the church, and pledged to abstain from alcohol, tobacco, politics, and war.

3. Shakers believed that God was both male and female, and they eliminated marriage and were committed to a life of celibacy.

4. Because Shakers had no children of their own, they relied on adoption of orphans to replenish their numbers.

5. Their agriculture and crafts, particularly furniture making, enabled most of the communities to become self-sustaining and even comfortable.

6. The Shakers had virtually disappeared by the end of the nineteenth century.

B. The Fourierist Phalanxes

1. Charles Fourier, a French utopian reformer, devised an eight-stage theory of social evolution and predicted the decline of individualism and capitalism.

2. Arthur Brisbane, Fourier’s disciple, believed that cooperative work groups called phalanxes would replace capitalist wage labor and liberate both men and women.

3. In the 1840s Brisbane and his followers started nearly 100 cooperative communities, but they could not support themselves and quickly collapsed.

C. Noyes and the Oneida Community

1. The minister John Humphrey Noyes set about creating a community that defined sexuality and gender roles in radically new ways.

2. Noyes, who was inspired by the preaching of Charles Finney, was expelled from his Congregational Church and became a leader of "perfectionism."

3. Perfectionists believed that the Second Coming of Christ had already occurred and that people could therefore aspire to perfection in their earthly lives and attain complete freedom from sin.

4. Noyes and his followers embraced complex marriage — all the members of the community being married to one another.

5. Noyes sought to free women from being regarded as their husbands’ property and to free them from endless childbearing and child rearing.

6. Opposition to complex marriage in Noyes’s hometown of Putney, Vermont, prompted him to move to Oneida, New York, in 1848.

7. The Oneida community became financially self-sufficient when one of its members invented a steel animal trap and others turned to silver manufacturing; the community survived into the twentieth century.

D. The Mormon Experience

1. The Mormons aroused more hostility than did the Shakers and the Oneidians because the Mormons successfully attracted thousands of members to their controversial group.

2. Founder Joseph Smith (The Book of Mormon) believed God had singled him out to receive a special revelation of divine truth.

3. Smith encouraged hard work, saving of earnings, and entrepreneurship; his goal was a church-directed community that would inspire perfection.

4. The Mormons eventually settled in Nauvoo, Illinois, and became the largest utopian community in America.

5. Smith believed in polygamy — having more that one wife at a time.

6. In 1844 Smith was murdered in jail after being arrested for trying to create a Mormon colony in Mexico.

7. Led by Brigham Young, the Mormons settled in the Great Salt Lake Valley and spread planned agricultural communities across present-day Utah (then part of Mexico).

8. Mormons continued to face resistance and possible armed attack from an American government that disapproved of Mormon marriage practices.

9. The "Mormon War" was a bloodless encounter; President James Buchanan was afraid that, if he tried to eliminate polygamy it might somehow lead to the end of slavery.

10. Mormons in Utah and the Midwest succeeded because they endorsed private ownership of property and accepted the entrepreneurial spirit of a market economy.

III. Abolitionism

A. African Colonization

1. The American Colonization Society proposed that slave owners should gradually emancipate their slaves and that the society would arrange resettlement in Africa.

2. Congressman Henry Clay predicted that emancipation without colonization would bring about a civil war between the two races; the society wanted the removal of African Americans.

3. The American Colonization Society was a failure: it raised little money, most blacks rejected colonization, and the society managed to send only about 6,000 blacks to Africa.

B. Slave Rebellion

1. To build support for emancipation, African American leaders tried to uplift the black masses by stressing "respectability" via temperance, sabbath keeping, and education.

2. Some whites felt threatened by this and in the mid-1820s led mob attacks against blacks.

3. In 1829 David Walker ("An Appeal . . . to the Colored Citizens") justified slave rebellion, warning of a slave revolt if their freedom was delayed.

4. As Walker called for a violent black rebellion in Boston, Nat Turner staged a bloody revolt in Southampton County, Virginia.

5. Turner believed that he was chosen to carry Christ’s burden of suffering in a race war.

6. Turner’s men killed sixty whites in 1831; he hoped other slaves would rally to his cause, but few did and they were dispersed by a white militia.

7. Vengeful whites began to take the lives of blacks at random, and Turner was captured and hanged.

8. Shaken by Turner’s rebellion, the Virginia legislature debated a bill for emancipation and colonization, but the bill was rejected.

9. Southern states toughened their slave codes and prohibited anyone from teaching a slave to read.

C. Garrison and Evangelical Abolitionism

1. A dedicated cadre of northern and midwestern evangelical whites launched a moral crusade to abolish slavery.

2. William Lloyd Garrison, an abolitionist leader, founded The Liberator in 1831 and spearheaded the formation of the New England Anti-Slavery Society the next year.

3. Garrison condemned the American Colonization Society, attacked the U.S. Constitution for its implicit acceptance of racial bondage, and demanded the immediate abolition of slavery.

4. In 1834 Theodore Dwight Weld (The Bible against Slavery) inspired a group of students at Lane Theological Seminary in Cincinnati to form an antislavery society.

5. Weld and Angelina and Sarah Grimké provided the abolitionist movement with a mass of evidence in American Slavery as It Is: Testimony of a Thousand Witnesses, which depicted the actual condition of slavery in the United States.

6. In 1833 Weld, Garrison, and Arthur and Lewis Tappan, along with other delegates, established the American Anti-Slavery Society in Philadelphia.

7. Women abolitionists quickly established their own organizations, such as the Philadelphia Female Anti-Slavery Society and the Anti-Slavery Conventions of American Women.

8. The abolitionist leaders appealed to public opinion; they assisted blacks who fled from slavery (via the underground railroad); and they sought support from legislators.

9. Thousands of men and women were drawn to the abolitionist movement, including Ralph Waldo Emerson and Henry David Thoreau.

D. Opposition and Internal Conflict

1. The abolitionist crusade won the wholehearted allegiance of only a small minority of Americans.

2. Northern opponents of abolitionism often turned to violence, and southern whites reacted to it with fury, offering a reward for Garrison’s kidnapping.

3. In 1835 Andrew Jackson asked Congress to restrict the use of the mails by abolitionist groups; Congress did not comply, but the House adopted the so-called gag-rule.

4. Abolitionists were divided among themselves; some abandoned the Anti-Slavery Society because Garrison advocated pacifism and the abolition of prisons and asylums.

5. Garrison also demanded that the Society "emancipate" women from their servile positions and make them equal with men.

6. Garrison’s opponents founded the American and Foreign Anti-Slavery Society.

7. Other abolitionists turned to politics; they established the Liberty Party and nominated James G. Birney for president in 1840; he won few votes.

IV. The Women’s Movement

A. Origins of the Women’s Movement

1. During the American Revolution, upper-class women raised the issue of greater legal rights for married women but won only slightly enhanced status as "republican mothers."

2. The economic revolution imposed new constraints on middle-class women; they became full-time providers of household services.

3. Some women used their newfound religious authority to increase their involvement outside the home, beginning with moral reform.

4. The American Female Moral Reform Society attempted to provide moral "government" for working females who lived away from their families.

5. Women also tried to reform social institutions — almshouses, asylums, hospitals, and jails; Dorothea Dix was a leader in these efforts.

6. Northern women supported the movement led by Horace Mann to increase the number of public elementary schools and improve their quality.

7. Catharine Beecher, the leader of a new corps of women educators, argued that women were the best qualified to instruct the young.

8. By the 1850s most teachers were women not only due to Beecher’s arguments: women could be paid less than men.

B. Abolitionism and Women

1. Maria W. Stewart, a Garrisonian abolitionist and an African American, lectured to mixed audiences in the early 1830s; white women also began to deliver abolitionist lectures.

2. A few women began to challenge the subordinate status of their sex; the most famous were Angelina and Sarah Grimké, who used Christian and Enlightenment principles to claim equal civic rights for women.

3. By 1840 the Grimkés asserted that traditional gender roles amounted to the "domestic slavery" of women.

4. In Uncle Tom’s Cabin Harriet Beecher Stowe charged that the greatest moral failings of slavery were its destruction of the slave family and the degradation of slave women.

5. Northern and midwestern women became advocates of greater rights for both African Americans and white women.

C. The Program of Seneca Falls

1. In 1848 New York adopted legislation giving married women greater control over their own property.

2. Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Lucretia Mott organized a gathering in Seneca Falls, New York, that outlined for the first time a coherent program for women’s equality.

3. The Seneca Falls activists relied on the Declaration of Independence and repudiated the idea that the assignment of separate spheres for men and women was the natural order of society.

4. In 1850 the first national women’s rights convention began to hammer out a reform program and began a concerted campaign to win the vote for women.

5. Susan B. Anthony joined the women’s rights movement and created a network of female political "captains" who lobbied state legislatures for women’s rights.

6. In 1860 New York granted women the right to collect and spend their own wages, to bring suit in court, and to control property they brought into their marriage in the event they became widows.

Chapter 13: The Crisis of the Union

I. Manifest Destiny

A. The Independence of Texas

1. The Adams-Onís Treaty of 1819 guaranteed Spanish sovereignty over Texas.

2. After winning independence from Spain in 1821, the Mexican government encouraged settlement by both Mexicans and migrants from the United States.

3. In 1829 the Americans won special exemption from a law ending slavery in Mexico.

4. By the 1830s Americans in Texas had split into two groups: the "peace party" wanted more self-government for the province, and the "war party" wanted independence from Mexico.

5. On March 2, 1836, the war party proclaimed the independence of Texas and adopted a constitution legalizing slavery.

6. General Antonio Lopéz de Santa Anna’s army wiped out the war party’s garrison that was defending the Alamo and then captured Goliad.

7. With reinforcements and the leadership of General Sam Houston, the war party routed the Mexicans in the Battle of San Jacinto, establishing de facto independence.

8. Presidents Jackson and Van Buren refused to allow the annexation of Texas; they felt its status as a slave state would divide the Democratic Party and lead to war with Mexico.

B. The Push to the Pacific: Oregon and California

1. In 1845 John L. O’Sullivan coined the phrase Manifest Destiny; he felt that Americans had a right to develop the entire continent as they saw fit, which implied a sense of cultural and racial superiority.

2. The Oregon country stretched along the Pacific coast from the forty-second parallel in the south to 54° 40' in the north and was claimed by both Great Britain and the United States.

3. "Oregon fever" raged in 1843 as thousands journeyed for months across the continent to the Willamette Valley to pursue farming and the China and fur trades.

4. By 1860 about 350,000 Americans journeyed the Oregon Trail; many died en route from disease and exposure, although relatively few died from Indian attacks.

5. Some left the Oregon Trail and traveled south along the California Trail, settling along the Sacramento River.

6. To promote California’s development, the Mexican government took over the California missions and promoted large-scale cattle ranching.

7. The rise of cattle ranching created a new society and economy as agents from New England firms assimilated Mexican life and married into the families of the californios.

8. Some California settlers hoped to emulate the Americans who colonized Texas and sought annexation into the United States; however, there were too few American settlers in California at that time.

C. The Fateful Election of 1844

1. Southern leaders favored territorial expansion to extend the slave system and advocated the immediate annexation of Texas.

2. In an effort to end joint occupation of Oregon, in 1843 a bipartisan national convention demanded that the United States seize Oregon all the way to 54° 40' north latitude.

3. Texas became the central issue in the 1844 election; Democrats selected James K. Polk who called for the annexation of Texas and the taking of all of Oregon.

4. The Whigs nominated Henry Clay who suggested that he might support annexation of Texas.

5. Polk’s method of linking the issues of Texas and Oregon was successful; immediately after Polk’s victory, congressional Democrats moved to bring Texas into the Union.

II. War, Expansion, and Slavery, 1846–1850

A. The War with Mexico, 1846–1848

1. Mexico was determined to retain its territories, and when the Texas Republic accepted American statehood in 1845, Mexico broke off diplomatic relations with the United States.

2. To intimidate the Mexican government, President Polk ordered General Zachary Taylor to occupy the disputed lands between the Nueces River and the Rio Grande.

3. Polk sent John Slidell to Mexico City to secure Mexican acceptance of the Rio Grande boundary and to buy Mexico and California.

4. Mexican officials refused to see Slidell and declared that the annexation of Texas was illegal.

5. In October 1845, at Polk’s request, Thomas O. Larkin encouraged the leading Mexican residents of Monterey, California, to declare independence and support peaceful annexation.

6. Naval commanders in the Pacific were told to seize California’s coastal towns in case of war, and Captain John C. Frémont’s heavily armed troops were sent deep into Mexican territory.

7. Hoping to incite an armed Mexican response, Polk ordered General Taylor to build a fort near the Rio Grande; when a clash occurred, Polk blamed the Mexicans for the bloodshed.

8. Whigs wanted a peaceful resolution, but the Democratic majority in Congress voted for war with Mexico.

9. To avoid simultaneous war with Britain, the president signed the Oregon Treaty, which divided the Oregon region at the forty-ninth sparallel.

10. By the end of 1846, the United States controlled much of northeastern Mexico, and American forces secured control of all of California in 1847.

11. Santa Anna went on the offensive attacking Zachary Taylor’s units at Buena Vista in 1847, and only superior artillery enabled a narrow American victory.

12. General Winfield Scott’s troops seized Mexico City in September 1847; Santa Anna was overthrown and the new Mexican government agreed to make peace.

B. A Divisive Victory

1. "Conscience Whigs" viewed the Mexican War as a conspiracy to add new slave states in the West, and Polk’s expansionist policy split the Democrats into sectional factions.

2. The Wilmot Proviso (1846) was intended to prohibit slavery in any new territories acquired from Mexico; the Senate killed the proviso.

3. To reunite Democrats before the election, Polk and Buchanan abandoned their expansionist hopes for Mexico and agreed to take only California and New Mexico.

4. In the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo (1848) the United States agreed to pay Mexico $15 million for Texas north of the Rio Grande, New Mexico, and California.

5. Many northerners joined a new "free-soil" movement, viewing slavery as a threat to republicanism and the yeoman farmers.

6. The Wilmot Proviso’s call for free soil was the first antislavery proposal to attract broad popular support.

7. Democrats nominated Lewis Cass as their presidential candidate; Cass was an avid expansionist who proposed "squatter sovereignty" and was deliberately vague on the issue of slavery in the West.

8. The Free Soil Party chose Martin Van Buren for president; the Whigs nominated General Zachary Taylor, a slave owner who had not taken a position on slavery in the territories.

9. Taylor and his running mate Millard Fillmore won the election, but the electoral margin was thin due to the Free Soil ticket taking New York’s vote.

C. 1850: Crisis and Compromise

1. In 1848 flakes of gold were found in the Sierra Nevada foothills, and by 1849 "forty-niners" were pouring into California in search of gold.

2. The influx of settlers revived the national debate over free soil; in November 1849 Californians ratified a state constitution that prohibited slavery.

3. The admission of California as a state threatened the carefully maintained balance of slave states versus nonslave states in the Senate.

4. Southern leaders decided to block California’s entry unless the federal government guaranteed the future of slavery.

5. John C. Calhoun warned of possible secession by slave states and civil war; he advanced the doctrine that Congress had no constitutional authority to regulate slavery in the territories.

6. Many southerners and some northern Demo-crats were willing to extend the Missouri Compromise line to the Pacific Ocean, guaranteeing slave owners some western territory.

7. A third choice, squatter (popular) sovereignty, placed decisions about slavery in the hands of local settlers and their territorial governments.

8. Whigs and Democrats desperately sought a compromise to preserve the Union; Whigs organized the Compromise of 1850.

9. The compromise included a Fugitive Slave Act to mollify the South, and to mollify the North, it admitted California as a free state and abolished the slave trade in Washington, D.C.

III. The End of the Second Party System, 1850–1858

A. Resistance to the Fugitive Slave Act

1. The plight of runaway slaves and the appearance of slave-catchers aroused popular hostility in the North, and free blacks and abolitionists defied the new law.

2. Harriet Beecher Stowe’s Uncle Tom’s Cabin (1852), which evoked sympathy and outrage throughout the North, increased northern opposition to the act.

3. Northern legislatures enacted personal liberty laws, and in Ableman v. Booth (1857) the Wisconsin Supreme Court said the act violated the Constitution.

4. The U.S. Supreme Court in 1859 upheld the constitutionality of the Fugitive Slave Act, but by then the act had become a "dead letter."

B. The Whigs’ Decline and the Democrats’ Diplomacy

1. Conflict over fugitive slaves split the Whig Party; about a third of the Whigs refused to support the Whig presidential candidate for the 1852 election, instead giving their support to the Democrats.

2. Democrats were also divided and no candidate could secure the necessary two-thirds majority, so they finally settled on a compromise nominee, Franklin Pierce.

3. The Democrats swept the election and their party was reunited; conversely, the Whig Party split into sectional wings.

4. As president, Pierce pursued an expansionist foreign policy to assist northern merchants, secured railroad rights in northern Mexico with the Gadsden Purchase, and tried to seize Cuba, issuing the Ostend Manifesto (1854).

5. Northern opposition to the Ostend Manifesto forced Pierce to halt his efforts to take Cuba, but it revived the northern fears of a "Slave Power" conspiracy.

C. The Kansas-Nebraska Act and the Rise of New Parties

1. The Kansas-Nebraska Act, constructed by Democrat Stephen Douglas, divided the northern Louisiana Purchase into two territories, Kansas and Nebraska. The act also voided the Missouri Compromise line by opening the area to slavery through the principle of popular sovereignty.

2. The Kansas-Nebraska Act passed in 1854 and proved to be the end of the Second Party System.

3. Antislavery northern Whigs and Anti-Nebraska Democrats formed a new party, the Republicans.

4. The "Know-Nothing" Party had its origins in the anti-immigrant and anti-Catholic organizations of the 1840s.

5. In 1855 the Pierce administration recognized the territorial legislature in Lecompton, Kansas, which had adopted proslavery legislation.

6. Free Soilers rejected the legitimacy of the territorial government; proslavery and antislavery sides turned to violence with the sack of Lawrence and John Brown’s "Potawatomie massacre."

D. Buchanan’s Failed Presidency

1. James Buchanan was nominated by the Demo-crats as the presidential candidate in the election of 1856.

2. The Republican Party nominated Colonel James C. Frémont, a free-soiler.

3. The American Party split into sectional factions; the northern faction endorsed Frémont, and the southern faction nominated Millard Fillmore.

4. James Buchanan won; the Republicans had replaced the Whigs as the second major party.

5. In Dred Scott v. Sanford (1856) the U.S. Supreme Court opined that a slave’s residence in a free state did not make him a free man and that African Americans were not citizens and could not sue in a federal court.

6. Chief Justice Taney declared the Missouri Compromise unconstitutional and endorsed Calhoun’s interpretation of popular sovereignty: only when settlers wrote a constitution and requested statehood could they prohibit slavery.

7. In 1858 Buchanan recommended the admission of Kansas as a slave state; this, in addition to the Dred Scott decision, split his party and the nation.

IV. Abraham Lincoln and the Republican Triumph, 1858–1860

A. Lincoln’s Early Career

1. Abraham Lincoln was elected to Congress in 1846 where he had to take a stand on the issue of slavery.

2. Lincoln felt that slavery was unjust but did not believe that the federal government had the constitutional authority to tamper with it.

3. Lincoln argued that prohibiting the expansion of slavery, gradual emancipation, and the colonization of freed slaves were the only practical ways to address the issue.

4. Lincoln later attacked the doctrine of popular sovereignty and said he would leave slavery where it existed, but not extend it into the territories.

5. Lincoln abandoned the Whig Party and joined the Republicans; he soon emerged as their leader in Illinois.

6. In Lincoln’s "House Divided" speech, he predicted a constitutional crisis over slavery.

B. The Republican Politician

1. In the 1858 duel between Lincoln and Stephen Douglas for the U.S. Senate, Douglas declared his support for white supremacy and Lincoln advocated economic opportunities for blacks.

2. Douglas’s "Freeport Doctrine" asserted that settlers could exclude slavery by not adopting local legislation to protect it; this upset proslavery advocates and abolitionists.

3. Douglas was elected to the Senate, but Lincoln had established himself as a national leader.

4. Southern Democrats divided into two groups: the "Moderates" (Southern Rights Democrats) pursued protection of slavery in the territories and the "Radicals" promoted secession.

5. In October 1859 John Brown led a raid that temporarily seized the federal arsenal at Harpers Ferry, Virginia; his purpose was to supply the arms for a slave rebellion.

6. Brown was charged with treason, sentenced to death, and hanged. He was a martyr to abolitionists.

7. In 1860 northern Democrats rejected Jefferson Davis’s program to protect slavery in the territories; Republicans opposed both slavery and racial equality.

8. The election of 1860 had four candidates: Stephen Douglas, John C. Breckinridge, John Bell, and Abraham Lincoln.

9. Lincoln garnered a majority in the electoral college; the Republicans had united the Northeast, the Midwest, and the Far West behind free soil and had seized national power.

Chapter 14: Two Societies at War, 1861-1865

I. Secession and Military Stalemate, 1861–1862

A. Choosing Sides

1. The Civil War was called the "War between the States" by southerners, and the "War of Rebellion" by northerners.

2. On December 20, 1860, the South Carolina convention voted unanimously to secede from the Union; "fire-eaters" elsewhere in the Deep South quickly followed.

3. The secessionists met in Montgomery, Alabama, in February 1861 and proclaimed a new nation — the Confederate States of America — and named Jefferson Davis the president.

4. Secessionist fever was far less pronounced in the states of the upper South, and their leaders proposed federal guarantees for slavery in states where it existed.

5. In December 1860 President James Buchanan declared secession illegal but said that the federal government lacked the authority to restore the Union by force.

6. South Carolina demanded the surrender of Fort Sumter, a federal garrison in Charleston Harbor.

7. Lincoln upheld the first part of the Crittenden plan to protect slavery where it already existed but was not willing to extend the Missouri Compromise line to the California border.

8. Lincoln declared that secession was illegal and that acts against the Union constituted insurrection; he would enforce federal laws as well as keep federal property in seceded states.

9. Jefferson Davis forced the surrender of Fort Sumter on April 14, 1861; Lincoln called in state militiamen to put down the insurrection.

10. Virginia, Arkansas, Tennessee, and North Carolina joined the Confederacy after the fall of Fort Sumter; Missouri, Delaware, Maryland, and Kentucky stayed with the Union.

11. A new state, West Virginia, was created and then admitted to the Union in 1863.

B. Setting Objectives and Devising Strategies

1. Jefferson Davis’s focus was on the defense of the Confederacy rather than conquering western territories; the Confederacy only needed a military stalemate to guarantee independence.

2. Lincoln portrayed secession as an attack on popular government and he insisted on a policy of unconditional surrender.

3. On July 21, 1861, General Irwin McDowell’s troops were routed by P. G. T. Beauregard’s Confederate troops in the Battle of Bull Run.

4. Lincoln replaced McDowell with George B. McClellan and signed bills for the enlistment of men for the newly created Army of the Potomac.

5. In 1862 McClellan launched a thrust toward Richmond, Virginia, the Confederate capital, but he moved too slowly and allowed the Confederates to mount a counterattack.

6. General Thomas ("Stonewall") Jackson defeated three Union armies in the Shenandoah Valley in western Virginia.

7. General Robert E. Lee launched an attack outside Richmond and suffered heavy casualties, but McClellan failed to exploit the advantage and Richmond remained secure.

8. Joining with Jackson in northern Virginia, Lee routed a Union army in the Second Battle of Bull Run in August 1862.

9. The battle at Antietam Creek on September 17, 1862, was the bloodiest single day in U.S. military history; Jackson’s troops arrived just in time to save Lee’s troops from defeat.

10. Lincoln replaced General McClellan with Ambrose E. Burnside, who later resigned and was replaced by Joseph ("Fighting Joe") Hooker.

11. The Union dominated the Ohio River Valley, and in 1862 General Ulysses S. Grant took Fort Henry on the Tennessee River and Fort Donelson on the Cumberland.

12. In April a Confederate army caught Grant by surprise near Shiloh; Grant forced a Confederate withdrawal but took huge casualties.

13. Union naval forces captured New Orleans, undermining Confederate strength in the Mississippi Valley.

II. Toward Total War

A. Mobilizing Armies and Civilians

1. After the defeat at Shiloh, the Confederate Congress imposed the first legally binding draft in American history.

2. The Confederate draft had two loopholes: it exempted one white man for each twenty slaves on a plantation, and it allowed drafted men to hire substitutes.

3. Some southerners refused to serve, and the Confederate government lacked the power to compel them; the Confederate Congress overrode judges’ orders to free conscripted men.

4. The Union government’s Militia Act of 1862 set a quota of volunteers for each state, which was increased by the Enrollment Act of 1863; northerners, too, could hire replacements.

5. In July 1863 hostility to the draft and to African Americans spilled into the streets of New York City when rioters sacked the homes of Republicans, killed a dozen blacks, and forced hundreds of black families from their homes.

6. The Union Army Medical Bureau and the United States Sanitary Commission provided medical services to the soldiers and tried to prevent deaths from disease.

7. Women took a leading role in the Sanitary Commission and other wartime agencies; Dorothea Dix was the first woman to receive a major federal appointment.

8. The Confederate health system was poorly organized and soldiers died from camp diseases at a higher rate than Union soldiers.

9. Women staffed growing bureaucracies, volunteered to serve as nurses, and filled positions traditionally held by men.

10. A number of women took on military duties as spies, scouts, and (disguised as men) soldiers.

B. Mobilizing Resources

1. The Union entered the war with a distinct advantage; its economy was far superior to the South’s and its arms factories were equipped for mass production.

2. The Confederates had substantial industrial capacity, and by 1863 they were able to provide every infantryman with a modern rifle-musket.

3. Confederate leaders counted on "King Cotton" to provide revenue to purchase clothes, boots, blankets, and weapons from abroad.

4. The Republicans raised tariffs, created a national banking system, devised a system of internal improvements, particularly railroads, and developed the Homestead Act of 1862.

5. The Confederate government built and operated shipyards, armories, foundries, and textile mills; commandeered food and raw materials; and requisitioned slaves to work on forts.

6. By imposing broad-based taxes, borrowing from the middle classes, and creating a national monetary system, the Union government created a modern nation-state.

7. The Confederacy financed about 60 percent of its expenses with unbacked paper money, which created inflation; they were forced to violate citizens’ property rights to sustain the war.

III. The Turning Point: 1863

A. Emancipation

1. As war casualties mounted in 1862, Lincoln and some Republican leaders accepted Frederick Douglass’s argument and began to redefine the war as a struggle against slavery.

2. Exploiting the disorder of wartime, tens of thousands of slaves escaped and sought refuge behind Union lines, where they were known as "contrabands."

3. Congress passed the First Confiscation Act in 1861, which authorized the seizure of all property — including slaves — used to support the rebellion.

4. In April 1862 Congress enacted legislation ending slavery in the District of Columbia, and in June it enacted the Wilmot Proviso and the Republicans’ free-soil policy.

5. In July 1862 the Second Confiscation Act declared "forever free" all fugitive slaves and all slaves captured by the Union army.

6. Lincoln’s Emancipation Proclamation of January 1, 1863, did not free a single slave, but it did change the nature of the conflict: Union troops became agents of liberation.

7. To reassure northerners who sympathized with the South or feared race warfare, Lincoln urged slaves to abstain from all violence.

B. Vicksburg and Gettysburg

1. Vicksburg, Mississippi, surrendered to the Union army on July 4, 1863, followed by Port Hudson, Louisiana, five days later.

2. Grant had cut off Louisiana, Arkansas, and Texas from the rest of the Confederacy; hundreds of slaves deserted their plantations.

3. The battle at Gettysburg, Pennsylvania, was a great Union victory and the most lethal battle of the Civil War.

4. After Union victories at Gettysburg and Vicksburg, Republicans reaped political gains in their elections, while Confederate elections went sharply against politicians who supported Davis.

5. The Confederates’ defeats at Vicksburg and Gettysburg ended their prospect of winning foreign recognition and acquiring advanced weapons from the British.

IV. The Union Victorious, 1864–1865

A. Soldiers and Strategy

1. The Lincoln administration initially refused to consider blacks for military service, but the Emancipation Proclamation changed popular thinking and military policy.

2. As white resistance to conscription increased, the Lincoln administration was recruiting as many African Americans as it could.

3. Military service did not end racial discrimination, yet African Americans volunteered for Union military service in disproportionate numbers.

4. Lincoln put Grant in charge of all Union armies and approved his plan to advance against all major Confederate forces simultaneously; they wanted a decisive victory before the election of 1864.

5. To crush the South’s will to resist, Grant waged "total war."

6. Grant was narrowly victorious in the battles of the Wilderness and Spotsylvania Court House; although Grant had eroded Lee’s forces, the Union losses were even greater.

7. The enormous casualties and continued military stalemate threatened Lincoln with defeat in the November 1864 election.

8. To punish farmers who provided a base for Jubal Early and food for Lee’s army, Grant ordered General Philip H. Sheridan to turn the region into a "barren waste."

9. Grant’s decision to carry the war to Confederate civilians changed the definition of conventional warfare.

B. The Election of 1864 and Sherman’s March to the Sea

1. In June 1864 the Republican convention endorsed Lincoln’s war measures, demanded the surrender of the Confederacy, and called for a constitutional amendment to abolish slavery.

2. The Republican Party temporarily renamed itself the National Union Party and nominated Andrew Johnson for vice president.

3. The Democratic convention nominated General George McClellan, who promised to recommend an immediate armistice and peace convention if elected.

4. On September 2, 1864, William T. Sherman forced the surrender of Atlanta, Georgia; Sherman’s success gave Lincoln a victory in November.

5. The pace of emancipation accelerated; Maryland and Missouri freed their slaves, followed by Tennessee, Arkansas, and Louisiana.

6. On January 31, 1865, the Republican dominated Congress approved the Thirteenth Amendment, which prohibited slavery throughout the United States.

7. During Sherman’s three-hundred-mile march to the sea, he destroyed railroads, property, and supplies; many Confederate soldiers deserted and fled home to protect their farms and families.

8. In February 1865 Sherman invaded South Carolina, where his troops ravaged the countryside even more thoroughly than they had in Georgia.

9. By early 1865 the Confederacy had such a manpower shortage that they were going to arm the slaves in exchange for their freedom the war ended before this had a chance to transpire.

10. The symbolic end to the war occurred on April 9, 1865, when Lee surrendered to Grant at Appomattox Court House, Virginia; by May the Confederate army and government had dissolved

Chapter 15: Reconstruction

I. Presidential Reconstruction

A. Johnson’s Initiative

1. The Republicans’ Wade-Davis Bill was a stricter substitute for Lincoln’s Ten Percent Plan and served notice that they were not going to turn Reconstruction policy over to the president.

2. The Republicans nominated Andrew Johnson for vice president in 1864 in an effort to promote wartime political unity and to court southern Unionists.

3. After Lincoln’s death, Johnson offered amnesty to all southerners who took an oath of allegiance to the Constitution and ratified the Thirteenth Amendment, except high-ranking Confederate officials and wealthy property owners.

4. Within months all the former Confederate states had met Johnson’s requirements for rejoining the Union and had functioning, elected governments.

5. Southerners held fast to the old order and enacted Black Codes designed to drive the ex-slaves back to plantations and deny them civil rights.

6. Johnson’s perceived indulgence of the southerners’ efforts to restore white supremacy emboldened the ex-Confederates; they filled the new Congress with old comrades.

7. Republicans in both houses refused to admit the southern delegations, and the Joint Committee on Reconstruction began public hearings on conditions in the South.

8. In response some Black Codes were replaced with nonracial ordinances whose effect was the same, and a wave of violence erupted across the South against the freedmen.

9. Congress voted to extend the life of the Freedmen’s Bureau and authorized its agents to investigate cases of discrimination against blacks.

10. Lyman Trumbull, chairman of the Judiciary Committee, proposed a Civil Rights Bill that declared all persons born in the United States to be citizens and gave them equal rights.

11. Republicans demanded that the federal government accept responsibility for securing the basic civil rights of the freedmen.

B. Acting on Freedom

1. Across the South, ex-slaves held mass meetings and formed organizations; they demanded equality before the law and the right to vote.

2. In the months before the end of the war, freedmen seized control of land where they could; General Sherman reserved tracts of land for liberated blacks in his March to the Sea.

3. Johnson’s amnesty plan entitled pardoned Confederates to recover confiscated property, shattering the freedmen’s hopes of keeping the land they lived on.

4. Blacks fought pitched battles with plantation owners and bands of ex-Confederate soldiers in order to try to hold onto their land; generally the whites prevailed.

5. A struggle took place over the labor system that would replace slavery; the issue of wage labor cut to the very core of the ex-slaves’ struggle for freedom.

6. Many freedpeople abandoned their old plantations to seek better lives and more freedom in the cities of the South; those who remained refused to work under the gang-labor system.

7. To help them with their struggle, blacks turned to Washington and the federal government.

C. Congress versus President

1. In February 1866 Andrew Johnson vetoed the Freedmen’s Bureau Bill and a month later vetoed Trumbull’s Civil Rights Bill calling it discriminatory against whites.

2. Galvanized by Johnson’s attack on the Civil Rights Bill, Republicans enacted the Civil Rights Act of 1866; Congress had never before prevailed over a veto on a major piece of legislation.

3. Congress renewed the Freedmen’s Bureau over a second Johnson veto.

4. Republicans moved to enshrine the black civil rights in the Fourteenth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution.

5. Johnson urged the states not to ratify the amendment and began to maneuver politically against the Republicans; the issue became a campaign for the Democratic Party.

6. Republicans responded furiously with an attack that came to be known as "waving the bloody shirt."

7. Johnson embarked on a disastrous railroad tour campaign and made matters worse by engaging in shouting matches and insulting the hostile crowds.

8. Republicans won a three-to-one majority in the 1866 congressional elections and the election registered overwhelming support for securing the civil rights of ex-slaves.

9. The Republican Party had a new sense of unity coalescing around the unbending program of the radical minority, which represented the party’s abolitionist strain.

10. For the radicals, Reconstruction was never primarily about restoring the Union but rather remaking southern society, beginning with getting the black man his right to vote.

II. Radical Reconstruction

A. Congress Takes Command

1. The Reconstruction Act of 1867 divided the South into five military districts, each under the command of a Union general.

2. The price for reentering the Union was granting the vote to the freedmen and disenfranchising the South’s prewar political class.

3. Congress overrode Johnson’s veto of the Reconstruction Act and, in effect, attempted to reconstruct the presidency with the Tenure of Office Act.

4. After Congress adjourned in August 1867, Johnson "suspended" Edwin M. Stanton and replaced him with General Ulysses Grant; he then replaced four of the commanding generals.

5. When the Senate reconvened, it overruled Stanton’s suspension and Grant, now Johnson’s enemy, resigned so that Stanton could resume office.

6. On February 21, 1868, Johnson dismissed Stanton; the House Republicans introduced articles of impeachment against Johnson, mainly for violations of the Tenure of Office Act.

7. After an eleven-week trial in the Senate, the vote was one short of the required two-thirds majority needed for impeachment.

8. Grant was the Republicans’ 1868 presidential nominee, and he won out over the Democrats’ Horatio Seymour; Republicans retained two-thirds majorities in both houses of Congress.

9. The Fifteenth Amendment forbade either the federal government or the states from denying citizens the right to vote on the basis of race, color, or "previous condition of servitude."

10. States still under federal control were required to ratify the amendment before being readmitted to the Union; the Fifteenth Amendment became part of the Constitution.

B. Woman Suffrage Denied

1. Women’s rights advocates were outraged that the Fifteenth Amendment did not address women’s suffrage.

2. At the 1869 annual meeting of the Equal Rights Association, Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Susan B. Anthony spoke out against the amendment.

3. The majority, led by Lucy Stone and Julia Ward Howe of the American Women’s Suffrage Association, accepted the priority of black suffrage over women’s suffrage.

4. Stanton’s new organization, the National Women’s Suffrage Association, accepted only women and took up the battle for a federal woman suffrage amendment.

5. Fracturing of the women’s movement obscured the common ground of the two sides, until both sides realized that a broader popular constituency had to be built.

C. The South under Radical Reconstruction

1. Southern whites who became Republicans were called "scalawags" by Democratic ex-Confederates; whites from the North were called "carpetbaggers."

2. Some scalawags were former slave owners who wanted to attract northern capital, but most were yeoman farmers who wanted to rid the South of its slaveholding aristocracy.

3. Although never disproportionate to their size in population, black officeholders held positions of importance throughout the South.

4. Republicans modernized state constitutions, eliminated property qualifications for voting, got rid of the Black Codes, and expanded the rights of married women.

5. Reconstruction social programs called for hospitals, more humane penitentiaries, and asylums; Reconstruction governments built roads and revived the railroad network.

6. To pay for their programs, Republicans introduced property taxes that applied to personal wealth as well as real estate, similar to the taxes the Jacksonians had used in the North.

7. In many plantation counties, former slaves served as tax assessors and collectors, administering the taxation of their onetime owners.

8. Reconstruction governments’ debts mounted rapidly and public credit collapsed; much of the spending was wasted or ended up in the pockets of state officials.

9. Republican state governments viewed education as the foundation of a democratic order and had to make up for lost time since the South lagged woefully behind in public education.

10. New African American churches served as schools, social centers, and political meeting halls, as well as places of worship.

11. Black ministers were community leaders and often political officeholders; they provided a powerful religious underpinning for the Republican politics of their congregations.

D. Sharecropping

1. The Southern Homestead Act of 1866 was mostly symbolic since the public land made available was in swampy, infertile parts of the lower South.

2. After Johnson’s order restoring confiscated lands to the ex-Confederates, the Freedmen’s Bureau devoted itself to teaching blacks how to be good agricultural laborers.

3. Sharecropping was a distinctive labor system for cotton agriculture in which the freedmen worked as tenant farmers, exchanging their labor for the use of land.

4. Sharecropping was an unequal relationship since the sharecropper had no way of making it through the first growing season without borrowing for food and supplies.

5. Storekeepers "furnished" the sharecropper and took as collateral a lien on the crop; as cotton prices declined during the 1870s, many sharecroppers fell into permanent debt.

6. If the merchant was also the landowner, the debt became a pretext for peonage, or forced labor.

7. Sharecropping did mobilize husbands and wives in common enterprise and shielded both from personal subordination to whites.

8. By the end of Reconstruction, about one-quarter of sharecropping families saved enough to rent with cash, and eventually black farmers owned about a third of the land they farmed.

9. Sharecropping committed the South inflexibly to cotton; the South lost its self-sufficiency in grains and livestock, and it did not put money into agricultural improvements.

III. The Undoing of Reconstruction

A. Counterrevolution

1. Democrats worked hard to get the vote restored to ex-Confederates, appealed to racial solidarity and southern patriotism, an attacked black suffrage as a threat to white supremacy.

2. The Ku Klux Klan first appeared in Tennessee as a social club, but under Nathan Bedford Forrest, it quickly became a paramilitary force against blacks.

3. By 1870 the Klan was operating almost everywhere in the South as an armed force whose terrorist tactics served the Democratic Party.

4. Congress passed the Ku Klux Klan Act of 1871, and federal agents penetrated the Klan and gathered information that provided the basis for widespread arrests.

5. Prosecuting Klansmen under the enforcement acts was difficult, and only a small fraction served significant prison terms.

6. The Grant administration’s assault on the Klan emphasizes how dependent the southern Republicans were on the federal government.

7. Northern Republicans were growing weary of Reconstruction and the bloodshed it seemed to produce, and sympathy for the freedmen also began to wane.

8. During the depression of 1873, northerners complained that Reconstruction retarded the South’s economic recovery and harmed their investment opportunities.

9. In the 1874 elections, the Republicans lost control of the House of Representatives to the Democrats.

10. In Mississippi local Democrats paraded armed, kept assignation lists of blacks called "dead books," and provoked rioting that left hundreds of African Americans dead.

B. The Political Crisis of 1877

1. Northerners were not very concerned by the South’s counterrevolution; voters were absorbed with other concerns revolving around scandals such as the so-called Whisky Ring.

2. The Freedmen’s Savings and Trust was a casualty of the depression, and many ex-slaves lost their life savings.

3. In denying the blacks’ plea for help, Congress was signaling that Reconstruction had lost its moral claim on the country.

4. Republicans nominated Rutherford B. Hayes as presidential candidate, and his Democratic opponent was Samuel J. Tilden; both favored "home rule" for the South.

5. When Congress met in early 1877, it was faced with both Republican and Democratic electoral votes from Florida, South Carolina, and Louisiana.

6. The Constitution does not provide for this contingency, so Congress appointed an electoral commission; the commission awarded the disputed votes to Hayes by a vote of 8 to 7.

7. Democrats controlled the House and set about stalling a final count of the electoral votes, but on March 1 they suddenly ended their filibuster and Hayes was inaugurated.

8. By 1877 three rights-defining amendments had been added to the Constitution, there was room for blacks to advance economically, and they had confidence that they could lift themselves up.

Chapter 16: The American West

Chapter Annotated Outline

I. The Great Plains

A. Indians of the Great Plains

1. About a hundred thousand Native Americans lived on the Great Plains at mid-nineteenth century; they were divided into six linguistic families and over thirty tribal groupings.

2. In the eastern section lived the Mandans, Arikaras, and Pawnees; in the southwest, the Kiowas and the Comanches; to the north, the Blackfeet, Crows, Cheyennes, and the Sioux nation.

3. The Sioux were nomadic people, and once they were on horseback, they claimed the entire Great Plains north of the Arkansas River as their hunting grounds.

4. The westernmost Sioux, the Teton people, made up a loose confederation of seven tribes that each spring assembled for the summer hunt and for battle.

5. The Sioux were an invading people who dominated the northern Great Plains by driving out or subjugating longer-settled tribes.

6. Sioux women labored on the buffalo skins that the men brought back; the women did not see their unrelenting labor as subordination to men.

7. The Sioux saw sacred meaning in every manifestation of the natural world; they conceived of God as "a controlling power or series of powers pervading the universe."

8. Once white traders appeared on the upper Mississippi River during the eighteenth century, the Teton Sioux traded pelts and buffalo robes for the goods they offered.

B. Wagon Trains, Railroads, and Ranchers

1. On first encountering the Great Plains, Euro-Americans thought the land "almost wholly unfit for cultivation" and best left to the Indians.

2. In 1834 Congress formally designated the Great Plains as permanent Indian country.

3. In the 1840s settlers began moving to Oregon and California, and the Indian country became a bridge to the Pacific.

4. In 1861 telegraph lines brought San Francisco into instant communication with the East; the next year the federal government went forward with a transcontinental railroad project.

5. The federal government awarded generous land grants along the right-of-way, plus millions of dollars of loans to the Union Pacific and the Central Pacific.

6. The Union Pacific built westward from Omaha and the Central Pacific built eastward from Sacramento until the tracks met in Promontory Point, Utah, in 1869.

7. Railroad tycoons realized that rail transportation was laying the basis for the economic exploitation of the Great Plains; a railroad boom followed economic recovery in 1877.

8. To make room for cattle raising, the buffalo had to go; in the early 1870s eastern tanneries learned how to cure buffalo hides and the herds almost vanished within ten years.

9. Texas ranchers inaugurated the famous Long Drive, hiring cowboys to herd cattle hundreds of miles north to the railroads that pushed west across Kansas.

10. As soon as railroads reached the Texas range country during the 1870s, ranchers abandoned the Long Drive.

11. North of Texas, where land was public domain, a custom of "range right" quickly became established.

12. After a hard winter in 1885, followed by severe drought the next summer, cattle died by the hundreds of thousands; ranchers dumped cattle on the market and beef prices plunged.

13. Open-range ranching came to an end, and sheep raising became a major enterprise in the sparser high country.

C. Homesteaders

1. Railroads, land speculators, steamship lines, and the western states and territories did all they could to encourage settlement of the Great Plains.

2. The Homestead Act of 1862 offered 160 acres of public land to settlers.

3. For migrants traveling west, prescribed gender roles broke down as women shouldered men's work and became self-reliant in the face of danger and hardship.

4. By the 1870s, farmers from the older agricultural states looked westward for land.

5. "American fever" took hold in northern Europe as Germans, Russians, Norwegians, Swedes, and Scandinavians emigrated to the United States.

6. The motivation for most settlers was to better themselves economically, but for some southern blacks Kansas briefly represented a new promised land of Canaan.

7. New technology — steel plows, barbed wire, and strains of hard-kernel wheat — helped settlers overcome obstacles presented by the land.

8. Homesteaders were highly susceptible to natural disasters like fire, hail, and grasshoppers.

9. In the latter 1880s the dry years came, and recently settled land emptied out as homesteaders fled in defeat.

10. By the turn of the century, the Great Plains had fully submitted to agricultural development; agriculture depended on sophisticated dry-farming techniques and modern machinery.

11. The economic capital of the Great Plains was Chicago, the hub of the nation's rail system.

D. The Fate of the Indians

1. Incursions by whites into Indian lands increased from the late 1850s onward; the Indians struck back, hoping whites would tire of the struggle.

2. A peace commission was appointed in 1867 to end the fighting and negotiate treaties by which Indians would cede their lands and move to reservations.

3. The southwestern quarter of the Dakota Territory was allocated to the Teton Sioux tribes, and Oklahoma was allocated to the southwestern Plains Indians and the Five Civilized Tribes.

4. The Indians resisted and fighting intensified in the mid-1870s; Congress appropriated funds for more western troops to control the Indians.

5. A crisis came on the northern plains in 1875 when the Indian Office ordered the Sioux to vacate their Powder River hunting grounds and withdraw to the reservation.

6. June 25, 1876, George A. Custer and his troops were surrounded and annihilated by Chief Crazy Horse's warriors at Little Big Horn.

7. The Sioux bands gave up and moved onto the reservation, but in 1877 part of both the Dakota and Oklahoma Territories were taken from the Indians because whites were looking for gold.

8. The Indian Rights Association thought that the only way Indians could fit into the white man's world was by assimilation.

9. The Dawes Act of 1887 declared that land for the Indians would be held in trust by the government for twenty-five years, at which time the Indians would become U.S. citizens; remaining reservations were sold off, with proceeds going toward Indian education.

10. Alarmed whites called for army intervention as the frenzy of Wokova's Ghost Dance swept through the Sioux encampments in 1890.

11. The bloody battle at Wounded Knee was the final episode in the long war of suppression of the Plains Indians.

12. As whites flooded the newly acquired land, Indians became the minority.

II. The Far West

A. The Mining Frontier

1. Fewer than 100,000 Euro-Americans lived in the entire Far West when it became a U.S. territory in 1848; extraction of mineral wealth became the basis for its development.

2. San Francisco became a bustling metropolis overnight and was the hub of a mining empire that stretched to the Rockies.

3. By the mid-1850s prospectors began to strike it rich elsewhere, including in the Sierras, the Colorado Rockies, Montana, and Wyoming.

4. Remote areas turned into a mob scene of prospectors, traders, gamblers, prostitutes, and saloonkeepers; prospectors made their own mining codes, or laws.

5. Prospecting gave way to entrepreneurial development and large-scale mining as original claim holders quickly sold out to generous bidders.

6. At some sites gold and silver proved to be less profitable than the more common metals for which there was a huge demand in manufacturing industries.

7. Miners formed trade unions, but relationships with managers often turned violent.

8. California and its tributary mining country created a market for Oregon's produce and timber.

9. Portland, Oregon, and Seattle, Washington, became important commercial centers, prospering from farming, ranching, logging, and fishing.

B. Hispanics, Chinese, Anglos

1. The first Europeans to enter the Far West were Hispanics moving northward out of Mexico.

2. The economy of the Hispanic Southwest consisted primarily of cattle and sheep ranching, and the social order was highly stratified.

3. In New Mexico, European and Native American cultures managed a successful, if uneasy, coexistence, but in California Hispanics did not treat the Native Americans well.

4. Anglos were incorporated into the New Mexican society through intermarriage and business partnerships, but by the 1880s California Hispanics had lost most of their land to Anglos.

5. New Mexico peasant men began migrating seasonally to pursue wage work on the railway or in the Colorado mines and sugar-beet fields.

6. Driven by poverty, a worldwide Asian migration began in the mid-nineteenth century; many Chinese came to North America by a "credit ticket system."

7. Chinese immigrants normally entered a powerful confederation of Chinese merchants in San Francisco's Chinatown, known as the Six Companies.

8. Chinese men labored mainly in the California gold fields until the 1860s, then the Central Pacific hired the Chinese to work on the transcontinental railroad.

9. In California, where there were few blacks, whites targeted the Chinese with racism; the anti-Chinese frenzy climaxed in San Francisco in the late 1870s when mobs ruled the streets.

10. Democrats and Republicans in California wrote a new state constitution replete with anti-Chinese provisions, and in 1882 Congress passed the Chinese Exclusion Act.

C. Golden California

1. Location, environment, and history all helped set California apart from the rest of the American nation.

2. California found its cultural traditions in its Spanish past, although much of the cultural celebration was actually commercialism.

3. In the 1880s the Southern Pacific Railroad was boasting of California's attractions; by 1900 southern California had firmly established itself as the land of sunshine and orange groves.

4. In 1890 California's national parks — Yosemite, Sequoia, and King's Canyon — were established; the Sierra Club was formed in 1892 as a defender of California's wilderness.

5. In 1913 the federal government approved the damming of Hetch Hetchy to serve the water needs of San Francisco.

6. California's well-being was linked with the preservation of its natural resources; the urge to conquer and exploit was tempered by a sense that nature's

Chapter 17

Chapter Annotated Outline

I. Industrial Capitalism Triumphant

A. Growth of the Industrial Base

1. Early factories produced consumer goods — goods that replaced articles made at home or by individual artisans.

2. Gradually, capital goods — goods that added to the productive capacity of the economy — began to drive America's industrial economy.

3. In 1856 British inventor Henry Bessemer designed the Bessemer converter, a furnace that refined raw pig iron into steel, which is harder and more durable than wrought iron.

4. In 1872 Andrew Carnegie erected a massive steel mill that used the Bessemer converter; the Edgar Thompson Works of Pittsburgh became a model for the modern steel industry.

5. The technological breakthrough in steel spurred the intensive exploitation of some of the country's rich mineral resources: iron ore and coal.

6. The nation's energy revolution was completed with the coupling of the steam turbine with the electric generator; after 1900 American factories began a conversion to electric power.

B. The Railroad Boom

1. Americans were impatient for year-round, on-time service that canal barges and riverboats could not provide; the arrival of locomotives from Britain in the 1830s was the solution.

2. The United States chose to pay for its railroads by free enterprise, but the governments of many states and localities lured railroads with offers of financial aid.

3. The most important boost that government gave the railroads was a legal form of organization — the corporation with limited liability.

4. Railroad promoters ran the railroad construction companies, and the opportunities for plunder were enormous.

5. The most successful railroad promoters were those with access to capital; John Murray Forbes, Cornelius Vanderbilt, and James J. Hill were the most famous.

6. With the early railroads, the gauges of track varied widely, and at terminal points the railroads were not connected.

7. In 1883 the railroads divided the country into the four standard time zones to manage scheduling, and by the end of the 1880s, the track gauge was standardized.

8. The inventor George Westinghouse perfected the automatic coupler, the air brake, and the friction gear; this resulted in a steady drop in freight rates for shippers.

9. For investors, the price of railroad competition was high; when the economy turned bad, as in 1893, a third of the industry went into receivership.

10. The nerve center of American railroading shifted to Wall Street, thanks to the investment banks of J. P. Morgan & Co. and Kuhn Loeb & Co.

11. By the early twentieth century, a half dozen great regional systems had emerged out of the jumble of rival systems.

C. Mass Markets and Large-Scale Enterprise

1. Until well into the industrial age, most manufacturers operated on a small scale for nearby markets and left distribution to wholesale merchants and commission agents.

2. As America's swelling population flocked to the cities, the railroads brought tightly packed markets within the reach of distant producers.

3. The Union Stock Yard of Chicago opened in 1865; livestock came in by rail from the Great Plains, was auctioned off in Chicago, and then shipped east.

4. Gustavus F. Swift and his engineers developed an effective cooling system. Swift invested in a fleet of refrigerator cars and built a central beef-processing plant in Chicago.

5. Swift & Co. was a vertically integrated firm, absorbing the functions of many small, specialized enterprises within a single centralized structure.

6. John D. Rockefeller's Standard Oil Company had a national distribution system for kerosene, and the Singer Sewing Machine Company used retail sales as well as door-to-door salesmen.

7. Modern advertising appeared in the late nineteenth century, as the active molding of demand for brand names became a major function of American business.

D. The New South

1. After the Civil War, the South remained overwhelmingly agricultural, and wages for farm labor in the South were low.

2. Southern textile mills recruited workers from the surrounding hill farms; mill wages exceeded farm earnings, but not by much.

3. The new southern mills had an advantage over those of the long-established New England industry — southern mills' wages were as much as 40 percent less.

4. A "family system" of mill labor developed, with a labor force that was half female and very young.

5. Blacks sometimes worked as day laborers and janitors but seldom got jobs as operatives in the cotton mills.

6. When cigarettes became fashionable in the 1880s, southerner James B. Duke took advantage of James A. Bonsack's new machine that produced cigarettes automatically.

7. The businesses that developed in the South produced raw materials or engaged in the low-tech processing of coarse products; the South consistently lagged behind the North economically.

8. Many southerners blamed the North for the economic disparity, as most of the capital came from the North.

9. Low wages in the South discouraged employers from replacing workers with machinery, attracted labor-intensive industry, and inhibited investment in education.

10. Northerners and immigrants avoided the South and its low wages, and prior to World War I, few southerners left for the higher wages of the North.

II. The World of Work

A. Labor Recruits

1. Unlike Europe, the United States did not rely primarily on its own population for a labor supply.

2. The U.S. demand for labor tripled between 1870 and 1900; white Americans found opportunities in the multiplying white-collar jobs in the cities.

3. Modest numbers of blacks began to migrate out of the South between 1870 and 1910; most settled in cities but were not given factory work because immigrants provided cheap labor.

4. Ethnic origin largely determined the kind of work immigrants took in America: the Welsh were mostly tin-plate workers; the English were miners; and Germans were machinists.

5. With the advance of technology, fewer European craftsmen were needed, yet the demand for ordinary labor skyrocketed.

6. By 1895 arrivals from southern and eastern Europe far outstripped immigrants from western Europe.

7. Heavy, low-paid labor became the domain of the immigrants; their relatives and neighbors often followed them to America, and a high degree of clustering resulted.

8. Immigrants were often peasants displaced by the breakdown of the traditional rural economies of eastern and southern Europe; many returned home during America's depression years.

B. Working Women

1. In 1900 women made up a quarter of the nonfarm labor force.

2. Contemporary beliefs about womanhood determined which jobs women took and how they were treated at work.

3. Women were not permitted to do "men's work," nor were they paid the same wages as men regardless of their skills, since they did not require a "living wage."

4. At the turn of the century, women's work fell into three categories: domestic service; female white-collar jobs; and industry, such as the garment trade.

5. Black women were excluded from all but the most menial jobs, as were black men.

6. The family household could not function without the wife's contribution, therefore society disapproved of wives taking paying jobs.

7. Working-class families had a hard time getting by on one income in 1900; one in five children under the age of sixteen worked.

8. By the 1890s all northern industrial states had passed child labor laws and regulations on work hours for teenagers.

9. After 1890 the proportion of working married women crept steadily upward.

C. Autonomous Labor

1. Autonomous male craft workers flourished in many branches of nineteenth-century industry.

2. These workers abided by the "stint," an informal system of restricting output that infuriated efficiency-minded engineers.

3. Many young female workers found a new sense of independence and new social outlets from working.

4. Women workers rarely wielded the kind of craft power that the skilled male worker commonly enjoyed.

5. For men, dispersal of authority was characteristic of nineteenth-century industry; the aristocracy of the workers were autonomous, but the subordinates were sometimes exploited.

D. Systems of Control

1. With mass production, machine tools became more specialized and the need for skilled operatives disappeared.

2. Employers were attracted to "dedicated" machinery because it increased output; the impact on workers was not their greatest concern.

3. Frederick W. Taylor's method of scientific management eliminated the brainwork from manual labor and deprived workers of the authority they had previously known.

4. Managers subjected tasks to a time-and-motion study to determine the workers' pay; Taylor assumed that workers would automatically respond to the lure of higher earnings.

5. Scientific management did not solve the labor problem as Taylor had thought it would, rather it embittered relationships on the shop floor.

6. Taylor's disciples created the new fields of personnel work and industrial psychology, which they claimed extracted more and better labor from workers.

7. For textile workers, the loss of autonomy came early, for miners and ironworkers it came more slowly, and construction workers mostly retained their autonomy.

III. The Labor Movement

A. Reformers and Unionists

1. The Knights of Labor was founded in 1869 as a secret society of garment workers in Philadelphia; by 1878 it had emerged as a national movement.

2. To achieve labor "emancipation" the Knights had intended to set up factories run by the employees; led by Terence V. Powderly they instead devoted themselves to "education."

3. The labor reformers expressed the higher aspirations of American workers, but the trade unions tended to the workers' day-to-day needs.

4. The earliest unions were organizations of workers in the same craft and sometimes the same ethnic group.

5. By the 1870s the national union was becoming the dominant organizational form for American trade unionism.

6. Many workers carried membership cards in both the Knights of Labor and a trade union.

7. As did most trade unions, the Knights barred women until 1881 when women shoe workers won the right to form their own local assembly.

8. The Knights of Labor allowed black workers to join out of the need for solidarity and in deference to the Order's egalitarian principles.

B. The Triumph of "Pure and Simple" Unionism

1. As the Knights of Labor won more strikes, its membership rapidly increased.

2. As the Knights stood poised as a potential industrial-union movement, the national trade unions insisted on a clear separation of roles, with the Knights confined to labor reform.

3. Samuel Gompers led the ideological assault on the Knights, and he hammered out the philosophical position known as pure and simple unionism.

4. The Knights favored an eight-hour workday because workers had duties to perform as American citizens, and unionists favored it because it spread the work among more people, providing more jobs.

5. Seizing on the antiunion hysteria set off by the Haymarket affair, employers broke strikes violently, compiled blacklists, and forced some workers to sign "yellow-dog contracts."

6. In December 1886, the national trade unions formed the American Federation of Labor (AFL); the underlying principle was that workers had to take the world as it was.

7. The Knights of Labor never recovered from the Haymarket affair, and by the mid-1890s, the Knights had faded away.

C. Industrial War

1. American trade unions wanted a larger share for working people; this made employers opposed to collective bargaining.

2. Andrew Carnegie had once stated that workers had the right to organize and that employers should honor workers' jobs during labor disputes.

3. Carnegie decided that collective bargaining had become too expensive and wanted to replace the workers at his steel mill in Homestead, Pennsylvania, with advanced machinery.

4. Carnegie's second-in-command, Henry Clay Frick, announced that Carnegie's mill would no longer deal with the Amalgamated Association of Iron and Steel Workers.

5. The Homestead strike on July 6, 1892, ushered in a decade of strife that pitted working people against the power of corporate industry, as well as the power of the government.

6. George M. Pullman cut wages at his factory, but not the rents for employee housing; he felt that there was no connection between his roles as employer and landlord.

7. Pullman workers belonged to the American Railway Union (ARU), and Eugene V. Debs directed ARU members not to handle Pullman sleeping cars (secondary labor boycott).

8. The Pullman boycott failed because it was crushed by the use of government power — on behalf of the railroad companies — to protect the U.S. mail.

D. American Radicalism in the Making

1. Eugene Debs devoted himself to the American Railway Union, a union that organized all railroad workers irrespective of skill — an industrial union.

2. After being incarcerated after the Pullman strike, Debs gravitated to the socialist camp and helped launch the Socialist Party of America in 1901.

3. With the formation of the Socialist Labor Party in 1877, Marxist socialism established itself as a permanent presence in American politics.

4. Under Debs the Socialist Party of America began to attract not only immigrants, but farmers and women as well.

5. The Western Federation of Miners joined with left-wing socialists in 1905 to create the Industrial Workers of the World (Wobblies).

6. The Wobblies supported the Marxist class struggle at the workplace rather than in politics (syndicalism).

7. American radicalism bore witness to what was exploitative and unjust in the new industrial order.

Chapter 18

Chapter Annotated Outline

I. The Politics of the Status Quo, 1877–1893

A. The National Scene

1. There were five presidents from 1877 to 1893: Rutherford B. Hayes (R), James A. Garfield (R), Chester A. Arthur (R), Grover Cleveland (D), and Benjamin Harrison (R).

2. The president's biggest job was to dispense political patronage; reform of the spoils system became urgent after the assassination of President Garfield in 1881.

3. The Pendleton Act of 1883 created a list of jobs to be filled on the basis of examinations administered by the new Civil Service Commission.

4. The biggest job of the executive branch was delivering the mail; in 1880, 56 percent of federal employees worked for the post office.

5. One of the most troublesome issues of the 1880s was how to reduce the federal funding surplus created by customs duties and excise taxes.

6. Congress had main control in regard to matters of national policy; the Democrats favored states' rights, while Republicans favored federally assisted economic development.

7. The tariff remained a fighting issue in Congress as the Democrats attacked Republican protectionism; every tariff bill was a patchwork of bargains among special interests.

8. Every presidential election from 1876 to 1892 was decided by a thin margin, and neither party gained permanent command of Congress.

9. The weakening of principled politics was evident after 1877, as Republicans backpedaled on the race issue and abandoned blacks to their own fate.

B. The Ideology of Individualism

1. In the 1880s the economic doctrine of laissez-faire was the belief that the less government did, the better.

2. Popular writings trumpeted the creed of individualism, from rags-to-riches stories to innumerable success manuals: Horatio Alger tales; Carnegie's "Triumphant Democracy"; Conwell's "Acres of Diamonds."

3. Charles Darwin's Origin of Species (1859) explained a process of evolution called natural selection and created a revolution in biology.

4. Herbert Spencer's theory of Social Darwinism spun out an elaborate analysis of how human society had evolved through competition and "survival of the fittest" — millionaires being the fittest.

5. Social Darwinists regarded with horror any governmental interference with social processes.

C. The Supremacy of the Courts

1. Suspicion of government paralyzed political initiative and shifted power away from the executive and legislative branches.

2. From the 1870s onward, the courts increasingly became the guardians of the rights of private property against the grasping tentacles of government, especially state governments.

3. State governments had primary responsibility for social welfare and economic regulation, but it was difficult to strike a balance between state responsibility and the rights of individuals.

4. Used by the Supreme Court, the Fourteenth Amendment was a powerful restraint on the states in the use of their police powers to regulate private business.

5. Judicial supremacy reflected how dominant the ideology of individualism had become and also how low American politicians had fallen in the esteem of their countrymen.

II. Politics and the People

A. Cultural Politics: Party, Religion, and Ethnicity

1. Proportionately more voters turned out in presidential elections from 1876 to 1892 than at any other time in American history.

2. Sectional differences, religion, and ethnicity often determined party loyalty.

a. Most Democrats were southerners.

b. Northern Democrats tended to be foreign-born and Catholic.

c. Republicans tended to be native-born and " Protestant.

3. In an age before movies and radio, politics ranked as one of the great American forms of entertainment, yet party loyalty was a deadly serious matter.

4. Hot social issues — education, the liquor question, and observance of the sabbath — were also party issues and lent deep significance to party affiliation.

B. Organizational Politics

1. By the 1870s both parties had evolved formal, well-organized structures.

2. The parties were run by unofficial internal organizations — "machines" — that consisted of insiders willing to do party work in exchange for public jobs or connections.

3. Power brokerage being their main interest, party "bosses" treated public issues as somewhat irrelevant.

4. There was intense factionalism within the parties; in 1877 the Republican Party divided into the Stalwarts and the Halfbreeds, who were really fighting over the spoils of party politics.

5. Party machines filled a void in people's lives, completing what the government left undone, particularly in cities; however, political machines never won widespread approval.

6. Veterans of machine politics proved to be effective legislators and Congressmen, and party machines did informally much of what governmental systems left undone.

7. In 1884 some Republicans left their party and became known as Mugwumps, a term referring to pompous or self-important persons.

8. Mugwumps were reformers, but not on behalf of social justice; as far as they were concerned, the government that governed least, governed best.

C. Women's Political Culture

1. The woman suffrage movement met fierce opposition; blocked in their efforts to get a constitutional amendment, suffragists concentrated on state campaigns.

2. Since many of the women's social goals required state intervention, women's organizations became politically active and sought to create their own political sphere.

3. Women's organizations worked to end prostitution, assisted the poor, agitated for prison reform, and tried to improve educational opportunities for women.

4. The Women's Christian Temperance Union (WCTU) was formed in 1874 and later, under the guidance of Frances Willard, the WCTU adopted a "Do Everything" policy.

5. By linking women's social concerns to women's political participation, the WCTU helped lay the groundwork for a fresh attack on male electoral politics in the early twentieth century.

III. Race and Politics in the South

A. Biracial Politics

1. After the Civil War, southern Democrats felt they had "redeemed" the South from Republican domination, hence they adopted the name "Redeemers."

2. The Redeemer Party was vulnerable in that it claimed to be the party of redemption for all people, yet it was actually dominated by the South's economic elite.

3. The Civil War brought out differences between the planter elite and the farmers who were called on to shed blood for a slaveholding system many did not believe in.

4. After the Civil War class tensions were exacerbated by the spread of farm tenantry and the emergence of the low-wage factory.

5. The "Readjusters" expressed agrarian discontent in Virginia by opposing repayment of Reconstruction debts to speculators.

6. As an insurgence against the Democrats accelerated, the question of black participation in politics and interracial solidarity became critical.

7. Black farmers developed a political structure of their own, the Colored Farmers' Alliance, which made black voters a factor in the political calculations of southern Populists.

B. One-Party Rule Triumphant

1. The conservative Democrats paraded as the "white man's party" and denounced the Populists for promoting "Negro rule," yet they shamelessly competed for the black vote.

2. Mischief at the polls — counting the votes of blacks that were dead or gone — enabled the Democrats to beat back the Populists in the 1892 elections.

3. Disfranchising the blacks became a potent section-wide movement in the South; in 1890 Mississippi adopted a literacy test that effectively drove blacks out of politics.

4. Poor whites turned their fury on the blacks; they did not want to be disfranchised by their own lack of education and expected lenient enforcement of the literacy test.

5. Tom Watson, a Georgia Populist, came forward to speak for the poor whites, appealing not to their class interests, but to their racial prejudices.

6. Segregated seating in trains in the late 1880s set a precedent for the legal separation of the races; Jim Crow laws soon applied to every type of public facility.

7. In Plessy v. Ferguson (1896) the Supreme Court upheld the constitutionality of "separate-but-equal" segregation.

8. Williams v. Mississippi (1898) validated the disfranchising devices of southern states, as long as race was not a specified criterion for disfranchisement.

9. Race hatred in the South manifested itself in a wave of lynchings and race riots, and public vilification of blacks became commonplace.

C. Resisting White Supremacy

1. Southern blacks resisted white supremacy as best they could; beginning in 1891 blacks boycotted segregated streetcars in at least twenty-five cities; Ida Wells began her antilynching campaign.

2. Some blacks were drawn to the Back-to-Africa movement, but emigration was not a real choice.

3. The foremost black leader of his day, Booker T. Washington, spread a doctrine that was seen as being "accommodationist"; it was known as the Atlanta Compromise.

4. Washington's Tuskegee Institute in Alabama advocated industrial education, and Washington thought that black economic progress was the key to winning political and civil rights.

5. By 1915 Washington's approach had been replaced with a more militant strategy, relying on the courts and political protest rather than black self-help and accommodation.

IV. The Crisis of American Politics: The 1890s

A. The Populist Revolt

1. Farmers needed organization to overcome their social isolation and to provide economic services — hence the appeal of the Granger movement, and later the farmers' alliances.

2. Two dominant organizations emerged: the Farmers' Alliance of the Northwest and the National (or Southern) Farmers' Alliance.

3. The Texas Alliance struck out in politics independently, after its subtreasury plan was rejected by the Democratic Party as being too radical.

4. As state alliances grew stronger and more impatient, they began to field independent slates; the national People's (Populist) Party was formed in 1892.

5. In 1892 the Populist's presidential candidate, James B. Weaver, captured enough votes to make it clear that the agrarian protest could be a challenge to the two-party system.

6. Although women were welcomed by the Populist party, its platform was silent on woman suffrage.

7. Populism was different from the two mainstream parties in that it had a positive attitude toward the state government and it recognized the conflict between capital and labor.

8. Free silver emerged as the overriding demand of the Populist Party and the Omaha Platform; embattled farmers hoped that an increase in the money supply would raise farm prices and give them relief.

9. Social Democrats and agrarian radicals argued that if free silver became the defining party issue, it would undercut the broader Populist program and alienate wage earners.

B. Money and Politics

1. The U.S. Banking Act of 1863 curtailed the issuance of bank notes, and in 1875 the circulation of greenbacks came to an end. The United States entered an era of chronic deflation.

2. The United States had always operated on a bimetallic standard, but in 1873 silver was officially dropped as a medium of exchange.

3. Inflationists began to agitate for a resumption of the bimetallic policy; modest victories were won with the Bland-Allison Act of 1878 and the Sherman Silver Purchase Act of 1890.

4. When the crash of 1893 hit, the silver issue divided politics along party lines, with the Dem-ocrats bearing the brunt of the responsibility for handling the economic crisis.

5. Grover Cleveland, a sound-money man, did a poor job of handling the crisis; he had to abandon a silver-based currency and had Congress repeal the Sherman Silver Purchase Act.

6. Cleveland's secret negotiations with Wall Street enraged Democrats and completed his isolation from his party.

7. After his "cross of gold" speech in 1896, the Democratic nomination of William Jennings Bryan meant that the Democrats had become the party of free silver.

8. The Republicans' candidate, William McKinley, won the election; McKinley stood solidly for high tariffs, honest money, and prosperity.

9. The Republicans became the nation's majority party and electoral politics regained its place as an arena for national debate.

Chapter 19

Chapter Annotated Outline

I. Urbanization

A. Industrial Sources of City Growth

1. Until the Civil War, cities were centers of commerce and factories were largely rural.

2. With the invention of the steam engine and the use of coal as a fuel, factories relocated to places most convenient to suppliers and markets.

3. The growth of factories contributed to urban growth; large factories employing many workers created small cities within their vicinities.

4. Many firms set up their plants near a large city so that they could draw on the city's labor supply and transportation facilities.

B. City Building

1. The commercial cities of the early nineteenth century were densely settled around harbors or riverfronts.

2. A downtown area emerged, and industrial development followed the arteries of transportation to the outskirts of the city where concentrations of industry were formed.

3. American cities had lower population densities than did European cities, and they tried harder to develop efficient transportation systems.

4. In 1887 Frank J. Sprague's electric trolley car became the main mode of transportation in the cities; the trolley car had replaced the horsecar, which had in turn replaced the omnibus.

5. Congestion in the cities led to the development of elevated and underground transportation; with Manhattan's subway, mass transit became rapid transit.

6. With passenger elevators available by the 1880s, Chicago soon pioneered skyscraper construction, though New York took the lead after the mid-1890s.

7. The first use of electricity was for better city lighting, then with Thomas Edison's invention of the serviceable incandescent bulb in 1879, electric lighting entered American homes.

8. By 1900 Alexander Graham Bell's newly invented telephone linked urban people in a network of instant communication.

C. The City as Private Enterprise

1. America was the birthplace of the "private city," shaped primarily by the actions of many individuals, each pursuing his own goals and bent on making money.

2. The city governments handled only those functions that could not be undertaken efficiently or profitably by private enterprise.

3. Municipal government became more centralized, better administered, and more expansive in the functions it did undertake.

4. City streets soon became filthy and badly maintained, smog was a problem, and families lived in crowded tenement housing.

5. New York's Tenement House Law of 1901 did little to ease the problems of existing housing, and only high-density, cheaply built housing earned a profit for landlords of the poor.

6. Frederick Law Olmsted's projects gave rise to the "City Beautiful" movement; the result was larger park systems, broad boulevards, and zoning laws and planned suburbs.

7. Cities usually heeded urban planners too little and too late; the American city placed its faith in the dynamics of the marketplace, not the restraints of a planned future.

D. A Balance Sheet: Chicago and Berlin

1. Berlin was a place where its people could feel united, Chicago was strictly a place of business.

2. As a functioning city, Chicago was superior to Berlin; Chicago had a better waterworks system, a sanitation project, a bigger streetcar system, more parks, and a public library.

3. American cities, although superior in many ways, were seen as ugly compared to European cities.

II. Upper Class/Middle Class

A. The Urban Elite

1. In cities the interpersonal marks of class began to lose their force, and people began to rely on external signs, such as choice of neighborhood, to confer status.

2. As commercial development engulfed downtown residential areas, many of the well-to-do began an exodus out of the city.

3. Some of the richest people preferred to stay in the heart of the city, such as on New York's Fifth Avenue.

4. Great wealth did not automatically confer social standing; in some cities an established elite, or "old" money, dominated the social heights.

5. New York attracted the wealthy not only because it was an important financial center, but also because of the opportunities it offered for display and social recognition.

6. Ward McAllister's Social Register served as a list of all persons deemed eligible for New York society.

7. Americans were adept at making money, but they lacked the aristocratic traditions of Europe for spending it.

B. The Suburban World

1. American industrialism spawned a new salaried middle class; more than a fourth of all employed Americans were white-collar workers in 1910.

2. Some of the middle class lived in row houses or apartments, but most preferred to escape to the suburbs.

3. The geography of the suburbs was a map of class structure; the farther from the city, the finer the house and the larger the lot.

4. Suburban boundaries were ever-shifting, and each family's move usually represented an advance in living standard.

5. In the suburbs, unlike the cities, home ownership was the norm.

6. The need for community lost some of its urgency for middle class Americans; work and family had become more important.

C. Middle-Class Families

1. By 1900 a "family" typically consisted of a husband, wife, and three children; the family relationship was usually intense and affectionate, a sharp contrast to the impersonal business world.

2. The burdens of domesticity fell on the wife, and it was nearly unheard of for her to seek outside employment.

3. The American Woman's Home, Ladies' Home Journal, and Good Housekeeping told wives that they were responsible for bringing sensibility, love, and beauty to the household.

4. Custom dictated a wife's submission to her husband, and some women rebelled against marriage.

5. During the 1890s the image of a "new woman" began to emerge, one that was proud of her female form and sexuality.

6. Parents no longer expected their children to work, and families were responsible for providing a nurturing environment.

7. Preparation for adulthood became linked to formal education, and as a youth culture began to take shape, adolescence shifted much of the socializing role from parents to peer groups.

III. City Life

A. Newcomers

1. At the turn of the century, upwards of 30 percent of the residents of New York, Chicago, Boston, Minneapolis, and San Francisco were foreign-born.

2. The later arrivals from southern and eastern Europe had little choice about where they lived; they needed cheap housing near their jobs.

3. Capitalizing on fellow-feeling within ethnic groups, immigrants built a rich and functional institutional life in urban America.

4. A great African American migration from the rural South to northern cities began.

5. Urban blacks could not escape discrimination; their job opportunities were few and they retreated into ghettos to live.

6. Urban blacks built their own communities with middle-class businesses and black churches, and the preacher was the most important local citizen.

B. Ward Politics

1. Politics integrated newcomers into urban society; every migrant to a city became a ward resident and immediately acquired a spokesman at city hall in the form of his local alderman.

2. Urban political machines depended on a loyal grassroots constituency, so each ward was divided into election districts of a few blocks.

3. The machine served as a social service agency for city dwellers, providing jobs, lending help, and interceding against the city bureaucracy.

4. In New York ward boss George Washington Plunkitt integrated private business and political services.

5. For city businesses, the machine served a similar purpose, but it exacted a price in return for its favors: tenement dwellers gave a vote, businesses wrote a check.

6. For the young and ambitious — whether white, black, or foreign-born — machine politics was the most democratic of American institutions; it served an integrating function that cut across party lines.

C. Religion in the City

1. For many city dwellers the church was a central institution of urban life, although all the great faiths of the time found it difficult to reconcile religious belief with urban secular demands.

2. The city could not re-create the communal environment upon which strict religious observance depended; Orthodox Judaism survived by reducing its claim on the lives of its faithful.

3. The Catholic Church managed to satisfy the immigrant faithful and made itself a central institution for the expression of ethnic identity in urban America.

4. To counter a decline in the number of its members, Protestant churches turned to evangelizing through the Sunday-school movement and revivals, as well as becoming instruments of social uplift.

D. City Amusements

1. City people needed amusement as a reward for working and to prove to themselves that life was better in the New World.

2. Amusement parks and theaters were built to entertain families, and working-class youth forged a culture of sexual interaction and pleasure seeking.

3. Prostitution became less closeted and more intermingled with other forms of public entertainment.

4. A robust gay subculture could be found in certain parts of the city, with a full array of places to cater to patrons' needs.

5. Baseball grew into more than just an afternoon of fun; by rooting for the home team, fans found a way of identifying with the city in which they lived.

6. Newspapers were sensitive to the public they served and met city people's hunger for information.

E. The Higher Culture

1. The Corcoran Gallery of Art opened in 1869, followed by the Metropolitan Museum of Art in 1871, the Boston Museum of Fine Arts in 1876, and Chicago's Art Institute in 1879.

2. Symphony orchestras appeared first in New York in the 1870s and in Boston and Chicago during the next decade.

3. Public libraries, many established by Andrew Carnegie, grew into major urban institutions.

4. Generous with their wealth, new millionaires patronized the arts to establish themselves in society, partly out of a sense of civic duty and partly out of a sense of national pride.

5. Mark Twain and Charles Dudley Warner published A Gilded Age (1873) to satirize America as a land of money grubbers and speculators.

6. The idea of culture took on an elitist cast and simultaneously became feminized; men represented the "force principle" and women the "beauty principle."

7. The "genteel tradition" dominated the nation's elite cultural institutions of universities and publishers from the 1860s onward.

8. By the early 1900s, the city had entered the American imagination and had become a main theme of American art and literature.

Chapter 20

Chapter Annotated Outline

I. The Course of Reform

A. The Progressive Mind

1. The term progressivism embraces a widespread, many-sided effort after 1900 to build a better society; there was no single progressive constituency, agenda, or unifying organization.

2. Progressives placed great faith in academic expertise, and they felt that it was important to resist ways of thinking that discouraged purposeful action.

3. "Institutional economists" used statistics and history to reveal how the economy functioned and why the strong would devour the weak in the absence of trade unions and regulation.

4. Progressives argued against treating questions of law as if they could be answered by external and self-evident ideas; hence Oliver Wendell Holmes’s reasoning, known as legal realism.

5. The philosophical underpinnings for legal realism came from William James’s philosophy of pragmatism, which judged ideas by their consequences.

6. The most important source of progressive idealism was religion; the major doctrine known as the Social Gospel stemmed from churches’ concerns for the plight of the poor.

7. The term muckraker was given to journalists who exposed the underside of American life; however, in making the public aware of social ills, muckrakers called the people to action.

B. Women Progressives

1. Women, who had long carried the burden of humanitarian work in American cities, were among the first to respond to the idea of progressivism.

2. Josephine Shaw Lowell founded the New York Consumers’ League in 1890 to improve the wages and working conditions for female clerks in the city stores.

3. The league spread to other cities and became the National Consumers’ League, a powerful lobby for protective legislation for women and children.

4. Muller v. Oregon (1908), which limited women’s workday to ten hours, cleared the way for a wave of protective laws across the country.

5. Settlement houses, such as Hull House, helped alleviate social problems in the slums and also helped satisfy the middle class residents’ need for meaningful lives.

6. Women from the National Women’s Trade Union League identified their cause with the broader struggle for women’s rights.

7. Alice Paul’s National Women’s Party and the National American Woman Suffrage Association lent broad-based organization to the campaign for a federal amendment for women’s suffrage.

8. Feminists considered themselves fully equal to men and were militantly pro-suffrage.

9. Feminism brought forth women such as Margaret Sanger, who opened the first birth control clinic in the United States.

C. Reforming Politics

1. Progressive politicians, especially Robert LaFollette, felt that the key to party reform was to deny the bosses the power to choose the candidates, and rather to have them chosen by popular vote in a direct primary.

2. The "initiative" enabled citizens to have issues placed on the ballot, and the "recall" empowered them to remove officeholders in whom they had lost confidence.

3. Like the direct primary, the initiative and the recall had as much to do with power relations as with democratic idealism.

D. Urban Liberalism

1. After the Triangle Shirtwaist Factory fire it was clear that social problems had become too big to be handled informally by party machines.

2. Urban liberals were advocates of active intervention by the state in uplifting the laboring masses of American cities.

3. Combining campaign magic and popular programs, progressive mayors won over the urban masses; city machines adopted urban liberalism without much ideological struggle.

4. "Voluntarism" weakened substantially during the progressive years as the labor movement came under attack by the courts.

5. Judges granted injunctions to prohibit unions from striking, and in the Danbury Hatters case, the Supreme Court’s decision rendered trade unions vulnerable to antitrust suits.

6. After the American Federation of Labor’s "Bill of Grievances" was rebuffed by Congress, unions became more politically active.

7. Organized labor joined the battle for progressive legislation and became its strongest advocate, especially for workers’ compensation for industrial accidents.

8. Between 1910 and 1917, all industrial states enacted insurance laws covering on-the-job injuries, although health insurance and unemployment compensation scarcely made it onto the American political agenda.

E. Racism and Reform

1. The southern direct primary was ostensibly an attack on back-room party rule, but it also served to deprive blacks of their political rights.

2. In the North, racism was on the rise as blacks migrated from the South to the North.

3. The principles affirmed by the Niagara Movement, brought about by William Monroe Trotter and W.E.B. Du Bois, defined the struggle for rights of African Americans.

4. A few white reformers joined the African American cause; one of their meetings led to the formation of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) in 1909.

5. Du Bois, the editor of the NAACP’s journal, The Crisis, used that platform to demand equal rights.

6. Like the NAACP, the National Urban League was interracial, and it became the lead organization in social welfare.

7. In the South, social welfare was the province of black women; the National Association of Colored Women’s Clubs was established in 1896.

II. Progressivism and National Politics

A. The Making of a Progressive President

1. Like many budding progressives, Theodore Roosevelt was motivated by a high-minded Christian upbringing, but he did not scorn power and its uses.

2. During his term as governor of New York, Roosevelt asserted his confidence in the government’s capacity to improve the life of the people.

3. Roosevelt, who was vice president at the time, became president after the assassination of William McKinley in 1901.

4. As president Roosevelt backed the Newlands Reclamation Act, expanded the national forests, upgraded land management, and prosecuted violators of federal land laws.

5. In an unprecedented step, Roosevelt appointed an arbitration commission and forced an end to a strike by the United Mine Workers in 1902.

6. Roosevelt was prepared to use all his presidential authority against the "tyranny" of "irresponsible" business.

B. Regulating the Marketplace

1. Roosevelt was troubled by the threat posed by big business to competitive markets.

2. The mergers of businesses into trusts greatly increased business concentration in the economy.

3. With the passage of the Sherman Antitrust Act of 1890, the federal government could enforce firmly established common laws in cases involving interstate commerce.

4. In 1903 Roosevelt established the Bureau of Corporations to investigate business practices and bolster the Justice Department’s capacity to mount antitrust suits.

5. After winning the presidential election, Roosevelt became the nation’s trust-buster, taking on corporations such as Standard Oil, American Tobacco, and Du Pont.

6. In the Trans-Missouri decision of 1897, the Supreme Court held that actions that restrained or monopolized trade automatically violated the Sherman Antitrust Act.

7. Roosevelt did not want the courts to punish "good" trusts, so he took it upon himself to decide whether or not to prosecute a trust.

8. By distinguishing between good and bad trusts, Roosevelt reconciled the Sherman Act with the economic reality of corporate concentration.

9. Convinced that the railroads needed firmer oversight, Roosevelt pushed through the Elkins Act of 1903, and then in 1906, the Hepburn Railway Act, thereby bolstering the power of the Interstate Commerce Commission.

10. Roosevelt authorized a federal investigation into the stockyards; the Pure Food and Drug and the Meat Inspection Acts were passed, and the Food and Drug Administration was created.

11. During Roosevelt’s campaign he called his program the Square Deal; when companies abused their corporate power, the government would intercede to assure Americans a "square deal."

C. The Fracturing of Republican Progressivism

1. William Howard Taft was not by nature a progressive politician; he disliked the give-and-take of politics, he distrusted power, and he revered the processes of law.

2. Taft won the election against William Jennings Bryan in 1908 with a mandate to pick up where Roosevelt left off; however, this was not to be.

3. Although Taft had campaigned for tariff reform, he ended up approving the protectionist Payne-Aldrich Tariff Act of 1909.

4. After the Pinchot-Ballinger affair, Taft was seen by the progressives as a friend of the "interests" bent on plundering the nation’s resources.

5. Galvanized by Taft’s defection, the reformers in the Republican Party became a dissident faction, calling themselves the "Progressives" or "Insurgents."

6. The Progressives formed the National Progressive Republican League and began a drive to take over the Republican Party; they knew they needed Roosevelt to topple Taft.

7. In the Standard Oil decision of 1911, the Supreme Court once again asserted the rule of reason, which meant that the courts would distinguish between good and bad trusts.

8. In August 1910 Roosevelt made the case for what he called the New Nationalism; the central issue was human welfare versus property rights.

9. Roosevelt believed that the courts stood in the way of reform and proposed sharp curbs on their powers.

10. Roosevelt felt that he had been cheated out of the Republican presidential nomination for the 1912 election, and he led his followers into a new Progressive Party, the "Bull Moose" Party.

D. Woodrow Wilson and the New Freedom

1. The Democrats made dramatic gains in 1910, taking over the House of Representatives and capturing a number of traditionally Republican governorships.

2. While governor of New Jersey, Woodrow Wilson compiled a sterling reform record; he then went on to win the Democratic presidential nomination in 1912.

3. Wilson warned that the New Nationalism represented a future of collectivism, whereas his program, the New Freedom, would preserve political and economic liberty; they differed over how government should restrain private power.

4. Wilson attacked the problems of tariff and banking reform with the Underwood Tariff Act of 1913 and the Federal Reserve Act of 1913.

5. To deal with the problem of corporate power, the Clayton Antitrust Act of 1914 amended the Sherman Act; the definition of illegal practices was left flexible to determine whether an action stifled competition or created a monopoly.

6. The Federal Trade Commission was established in 1914, and it received broad powers to investigate companies and issue "cease and desist" orders against unfair trade practices.

7. The labor vote had grown increasingly important to the Democratic party, and before his second campaign, Wilson championed a host of bills beneficial to American workers.

Chapter 21

Chapter Annotated Outline

I. The Roots of Expansion

A. Diplomacy in the Gilded Age

1. The United States lapsed into diplomatic inactivity as the building of the nation’s industrial economy turned Americans’ attention inward.

2. Americans shared a sense of isolation from the rest of the world, even though new international telegraphic cables provided overseas communication after the 1860s.

3. After the Civil War, the U.S. Navy fleet gradually deteriorated; the administration of Chester A. Arthur began a modest upgrading program, but the navy remained small.

4. Domestic politics made it difficult to develop a coherent foreign policy, and appointment to the foreign service was mostly through the spoils system.

5. The State Department tended to be inactive and exerted little control over either policy or its missions abroad.

6. Diplomatic activity quickened when James G. Blaine became secretary of state; he was involved in settling disputes in foreign lands, and he called the first Pan-American conference.

7. After the McKinley Tariff of 1890 cancelled Hawaii’s favored access to the American market, plans were made for an American takeover, but Grover Cleveland halted annexation plans.

8. In 1867 the United States purchased Alaska from imperial Russia, and to the south, it secured rights in 1878 to a coaling station in Pago Pago Harbor in the Samoan Islands.

9. American diplomacy during the Gilded Age has been characterized as a series of incidents rather than the pursuit of a foreign policy; there were no clear national objectives.

B. The Economy of Expansionism

1. America’s gross domestic product quadrupled between 1870 and 1900, and as the industrial economy expanded, so did factory exports.

2. American firms such as the Singer Sewing Machine Company and Standard Oil began to establish their factories overseas.

3. Foreign trade was important for reasons of international finance: to balance its foreign debt account, the United States needed to export more goods than it imported.

4. Many thought that the nation’s capacity to produce had outpaced its capacity to consume; the United States needed buyers in foreign markets to purchase its surplus products.

5. Europe and Canada represented the bulk of American export trade in the late nineteenth century, and Asia and Latin America represented a modest part.

6. The pace of European imperialism accelerated in the mid-1880s: Africa was carved up after the Berlin Conference, and European powers challenged American interests in Latin America.

7. The panic of 1893 set in motion industrial strikes and agrarian protests that many Americans took to be symptoms of revolution.

8. Securing the markets of Latin America and Asia became an urgent necessity and inspired the expansionist diplomacy of the 1890s.

C. The Making of an Expansionist Foreign Policy

1. In his book The Influence of Seapower upon History (1890), Captain Alfred T. Mahan, a leading naval strategist, argued that the key to imperial power was control of the seas.

2. Traversing the oceans required a robust merchant marine, a powerful navy to protect American commerce, and strategic overseas bases.

3. Mahan called for a canal across Central America to connect the Atlantic and Pacific oceans, with control over strategic points in defense of American trading interests.

4. Politicians accepted Mahan’s underlying logic, and from 1889 onward a surprising consistency began to emerge in the conduct of American foreign policy.

5. In 1890 under Benjamin Harrison’s administration, Congress appropriated funds for three battleships as the first installment on a two-ocean navy.

6. Grover Cleveland’s administration cancelled Harrison’s scheme for annexing Hawaii but picked up the naval program; the nation’s commercial vitality depended on its naval power.

7. For years a border dispute simmered between Venezuela and British Guiana, and the United States demanded that it be resolved.

8. Invoking the Monroe Doctrine, Secretary of State Olney warned that the United States would brook no challenge to its vital interests in the Caribbean.

9. Realizing that the Cleveland administration meant business, the British agreed to arbitration of the border dispute.

D. The Ideology of Expansionism

1. One source of expansionist dogma was the Social Darwinism theory: if the United States wanted to survive, it had to expand.

2. Linked to Social Darwinism was a spreading belief in the inherent superiority of the Anglo-Saxon race.

3. John Fisk’s "Manifest Destiny" lecture espoused the belief that every land on the earth’s surface should become English in its language, religion, political habits, and bloodline.

4. Frederick Jackson Turner suggested a link between the closing of the western frontier and overseas expansion, and as Turner predicted, Manifest Destiny did turn outward.

II. An American Empire

A. The Cuban Crisis

1. In February 1895 Cuban patriots rebelled and began a guerrilla war for their freedom from Spain; the Spanish commander, Valeri-ano Weyler, adopted a policy of "reconcentration."

2. A key group of exiles, the junta tried to make a case for the Cuba Libre in New York; William Randolph Hearst put Cuba’s plight on the front page of the New York Journal.

3. Americans felt concern and sympathy for the Cubans, and their anger against Spain came to be known as "jingoism."

4. Congress began calling for Cuban independence, but Grover Cleveland was concerned that the Cuban civil war was disrupting trade and harming American property interests.

5. William McKinley, like Cleveland, felt that the United States was the dominant Caribbean power with vital interests to be protected, but McKinley was tougher on the Spaniards.

6. McKinley was sensitive to business fears that any rash action might disrupt an economy just recovering from the depression.

7. On September 18, 1897, the United States informed the Spanish government that it was time to end the war or the United States would take steps to end it.

8. Spain backed away from reconcentration and offered Cuba a degree of self-rule, but the Cuban rebels demanded full independence.

9. The New York Journal published the private letter of Dupuy de Lôme, the Spanish minister to the United States, which called President McKinley weak and suggested that the Spanish government did not take American demands seriously.

10. A week later the U.S. battle cruiser Maine blew up and sank in Havana Harbor, killing 260 seamen; popular passions against Spain became a major factor in the march toward war.

11. Spain rejected McKinley’s demands for an immediate armistice, abandonment of the practice of reconcentration, and peace negotiations.

12. The War Hawks in Congress chafed under McKinley’s cautious progress, but the president did not lose control.

13. The resolutions authorizing intervention in Cuba contained an amendment disclaiming any intention by the United States of taking possession of Cuba.

14. It was not because of expansionist ambitions that McKinley forced Spain into a corner, but once war came, McKinley saw it as an opportunity for expansion.

B. The Spoils of War

1. When Spain declared war on April 24, 1898, Roosevelt was commissioned lieutenant colonel in the volunteer cavalry regiment known as the Rough Riders.

2. Confusion reigned: uniforms did not arrive, the food was bad, the sanitation worse, rifles were in short supply, and no provisions had been made for getting troops to Cuba.

3. The small regular army provided a nucleus for the civilians who had to be turned into soldiers inside of a few weeks.

4. The navy was in better shape, as Spain had nothing to match American battleships and armored cruisers.

5. On May 1, American ships cornered the Spanish fleet in Manila Bay and destroyed it; Manila, the Philippine capital, fell on August 13, 1898.

6. With Commodore George Dewey’s naval victory, Americans were not going to let the Philippine Islands go; if Americans wanted an in to China, they had to project power into Asia.

7. Hawaiian annexation went through Congress by joint resolution in July 1898; Hawaii was a halfway station on the way to the Philippines.

8. The navy also pressed for a coaling base in Guam in the central Pacific and a base in Puerto Rico in the Caribbean.

9. The main battle in the campaign in Cuba occurred near Santiago on the heights commanded by San Juan Hill; convinced that Santiago could not be saved, Spanish forces surrendered.

10. In an armistice, Spain agreed to liberate Cuba and cede Puerto Rico and Guam to the United States, and American forces occupied Manila pending a peace treaty.

C. The Imperial Experiment

1. In the Treaty of Paris the Spanish ceded the Philippines to the United States for a payment of $20 million.

2. Opponents of the treaty invoked the country’s republican principles, declaring that the federal government could not conquer an alien people and hold them in subjugation.

3. In November 1890, a social elite of old-line Mugwump reformers from Boston formed the first of the Anti-Imperialist Leagues that began to spring up around the country.

4. The anti-imperialists never developed a popular movement: they shared little other interests and they lacked the "common" touch.

5. Before the Senate ratified the Treaty of Paris, fighting broke out between American and Filipino patrols; confronted with American annexation, Cubans turned their guns on American forces.

6. Fighting tenacious guerrillas, the U.S. Army resorted to the reconcentration tactic the Spaniards had used in Cuba.

7. The fighting ended in 1902, and as governor, William Howard Taft intended to make the Philippines a model of American road building and sanitary engineering.

8. Americans had not anticipated the brutal methods needed to subdue the Filipino guerrillas; the Jones Act (1916) formally committed the United States to granting Philippine independence.

9. In a few years the United States had acquired the makings of an overseas empire and had moved into a position of what is commonly called a world power.

III. Onto the World Stage

A. A Power among Powers

1. Roosevelt justified American dominance in the Caribbean by saying that it was incumbent upon the civilized powers to insist on the proper policing of the world and the maintenance of the balance of power.

2. In the Hay-Pauncefote Agreement of 1901, the British gave up their rights to participate in any Central American canal project.

3. There was no formal alliance, but Anglo-American friendship had been placed on such a firm basis that it was assumed that the Americans and the British would never have a parricidal war.

4. In regard to American power, especially naval power, Roosevelt said, "Speak softly and carry a big stick."

5. With an independence movement brewing in Panama, the United States lent covert assistance that ensured the success of a bloodless revolution against Colombia.

6. On November 7, 1901, the United States recognized Panama and two weeks later received a perpetually renewable lease on a canal zone.

7. The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers finished the Panama Canal in 1914, giving the United States a commanding commercial and strategic position in the Western Hemisphere.

8. The Roosevelt Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine translated into an unrestricted American right to regulate Caribbean affairs.

9. A condition for Cuban independence had been a proviso called the Platt Amendment, which gave the United States the right to intervene if Cuba’s independence or internal order was threatened.

10. When domestic order broke down, the U.S. Marines occupied Cuba in 1906, Nicaragua in 1909, and Haiti and the Dominican Republic in later years.

B. The Open Door in Asia

1. In China the occupying powers instituted discriminatory trade regulations in their zones of control.

2. In 1899 U.S. Secretary of State John Hay sent the occupying powers an "open door" note claiming the right of equal trade access for all nations that wanted to do business in China.

3. In 1900 the United States joined a multinational campaign to break the Boxers’ siege of the diplomatic missions in Peking.

4. As long as the legal fiction of an independent China survived, so would American claims to equal access to the China market.

5. Anxious to restore some semblance of power, Roosevelt mediated a settlement of the Russo-Japanese War in 1905; Japan emerged as the predominant power in East Asia.

6. A surge of anti-Asian sentiment in California complicated Roosevelt’s efforts to achieve Asian accommodation for American interests in the Pacific.

7. The Root-Takahira Agreement confirmed the status quo in the Pacific, as well as the principles of free oceanic commerce and equal trade opportunity in China.

8. William Howard Taft hoped that with "dollar diplomacy" American capital would counterbalance Japanese power and pave the way for increased commercial activities.

9. When the Chinese Revolution of 1911 toppled the Manchu dynasty, Taft supported the victorious Chinese nationalists, and the United States entered a long-term rivalry with Japan.

C. Wilson and Mexico

1. Woodrow Wilson opposed dollar diplomacy, which he believed bullied weaker countries financially and gave undue advantage to American business.

2. Wilson insisted that the United States should conduct its foreign policy in conformity with its democratic principles.

3. Mexico’s dictator, Porfirio Diaz, who was overthrown by Francisco Madero, spoke for liberty and constitutionalism much as Wilson did.

4. Madero was deposed and murdered in 1913 by Victoriano Huerta before Madero could carry out his reforms.

5. Although other powers were quick to recognize Huerta’s provisional government, Wilson abhorred him and the United States did not recognize his government.

6. Wilson intended to force Huerta out and to put the Mexican revolution back on the constitutional path started by Madero.

7. Venustiano Carranza’s Constitutionalist movement in northern Mexico did not want American intervention; he only wanted recognition so he could purchase U.S. weapons.

8. In 1914 American weapons began to flow to Carranza’s troops; it became clear that Huerta was not going to fall, and Wilson ordered the American occupation of the port of Veracruz.

9. Huerta’s regime began to crumble, yet Carranza nonetheless condemned the United States and his forces came close to engaging the Americans.

D. The Gathering Storm in Europe

1. In Europe there was rivalry between Germany, France, and Britain, and in the Balkans, Austria-Hungary and Russia were maneuvering for dominance.

2. Out of these conflicts an alliance system emerged: Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy made up the Triple Alliance, and France and Russia made up the Dual Alliance.

3. Britain reached an entente with both France and Russia by 1907, laying the foundation for a Triple Entente; a confrontation between two great European power blocs became possible.

4. On becoming president, Roosevelt took a lively interest in European affairs, and as the head of a Great Power, he was eager to make a contribution to the cause of peace there.

5. At an international conference in 1906 at Algeciras, Spain, the U.S. role was defined: the United States would be the apostle of peace, distinguished by a lack of selfish interest in European affairs.

6. The Permanent Court of Arbitration that resulted from the Hague Peace Conference of 1899 offered new hope for the peaceful settlement of international disputes.

7. Both Roosevelt and Taft negotiated treaties with other countries, only to have them disabled by a Senate unwilling to permit any erosion of the nation’s sovereignty.

8. William Jennings Bryan’s "cooling off" treaties with other countries were admirable, but had no bearing on the explosive power politics of Europe.

Chapter 22

Chapter Annotated Outline

I. The Great War, 1914–1918

A. War in Europe

1. When war erupted, most Americans saw no reason to involve themselves in the struggle among Europe’s imperialistic powers; the United States had a good relationship with both sides.

2. Many Americans believed in "U.S. exceptionalism," feeling that democratic values and institutions made their country immune from the corruption and chaos of other nations.

3. On June 28, 1914, Gavrilo Princip assassinated Franz Ferdinand, the heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne, and his wife in the town of Sarajevo.

4. After the assassination, the complex European alliance system drew all the major powers into war.

5. Great Britain, France, Japan, Russia, and Italy formed the Allied Powers, while Germany, Austria-Hungary, Turkey, and Bulgaria formed the Central Powers.

6. The worldwide scope of the conflict came to be known as "the Great War," or later, World War I.

7. World War I was the first war in which extensive harm was done to civilians; new military technology, much of it from the United States, made armies more deadly than before.

8. Trench warfare produced unprecedented numbers of casualties; between February and December of 1916, the French suffered 550,000 casualties and the Germans 450,000.

B. The Perils of Neutrality

1. After the war began in Europe, President Woodrow Wilson made it clear that America would remain neutral; he believed that he could arbitrate and influence a European settlement.

2. The United States had divided loyalties concerning the war: many Americans felt deep cultural ties to the Allies, while others had strong pro-German sentiments.

3. Progressive leaders opposed American participation in the European conflict, pacifist groups mobilized popular opposition, and the political left condemned the war as imperialistic.

4. African American leaders saw the war as a conflict of the white race only.

5. The British imposed a naval blockade that in effect prevented neutral nations, including the United States, from trading with Germany and its allies.

6. The resulting trade imbalance translated into closer U.S. ties with the Allies, despite America’s official posture of neutrality.

7. The German navy launched a devastating new weapon, the U-boat, and issued a warning to civilians that all ships flying the flags of Britain or its allies were liable to be destroyed.

8. On May 7, 1915, the British luxury liner Lusitania was torpedoed by a German U-boat off the coast of Ireland; 128 Americans were among the 1,198 people killed.

9. In September 1915, Germany announced that its submarines would no longer attack passenger ships without warning.

10. Wilson worried that the United States might be drawn into the conflict and he endorsed a $1 billion buildup of the army and the navy.

11. Public opinion against entering the war shaped the election of 1916; Wilson won the election but lost his hopes of staying out of the war.

12. The resumption of unrestricted submarine warfare, in conjunction with the Zimmermann telegram, inflamed anti-German sentiment in America.

13. Throughout March of 1917, German U-boats attacked and sank American ships without warning; on April 2, Wilson asked Congress for a declaration of war; the United States formally declared war on Germany on April 6, 1917.

C. "Over There"

1. Many Americans assumed that their participation in the war would be limited to military and economic aid and were surprised to find that American troops would be sent to Europe.

2. To field a fighting force strong enough to enter a global war, the American government turned to conscription of almost 4 million men and women with the passage of the Selective Service Act in May 1917.

3. The selective service system combined central direction from Washington with local administration and civilian control; thus it preserved individual freedom and local autonomy.

4. General John J. Pershing was head of the American Expeditionary Force (AEF), but the new recruits had to be trained before being transported across the submarine-infested Atlantic.

5. The government implemented a plan of sending armed convoys across the Atlantic; the plan worked: no American soldiers were killed on the way to Europe.

6. Pershing was reluctant to put his men under foreign commanders; thus until May 1918, the French and the British bore the brunt of the fighting.

7. Under the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, the new Bolshevik regime under Vladimir Ilych Lenin surrendered about one-third of Russia’s territories in return for an end to hostilities.

8. At the request of Allied leaders, Pershing committed about 60,000 Americans to help the French repel the Germans in the battles of Château-Thierry and Belleau Wood.

9. American and Allied forces brought the German offensive to a halt in mid-July; the counteroffensive began with a campaign to push the Germans back from the Marne River.

10. The Meuse-Argonne campaign pushed the enemy back across the Selle River near Verdun and broke the German defenses, at the cost of over 26,000 American lives.

11. German and Allied representatives signed an armistice on November 11, 1918, ending World War I.

12. America’s decisive contribution signaled a shift in international power as European dominance declined and the United States emerged as a world leader.

13. The United States lost 48,000 American servicemen in the fighting, and another 27,000 died from other causes; the Allies and Central Powers lost 8 million soldiers.

14. A group of former AEF soldiers formed the first American Legion in 1919 to preserve the "memories and incidents" of their association in the Great War.

15. Encouraged by black leaders to enlist as a means of proving their loyalty and achieving first-class citizenship, black soldiers instead suffered continued discrimination.

II. War on the Home Front

A. Mobilization

1. The government paid for the war by using the Federal Reserve System to expand the money supply, by enacting the War Revenue Bills of 1917 and 1918, and by collecting excess-profits taxes from corporations.

2. The central agency for mobilizing wartime industry, the War Industries Board (WIB), produced an unparalleled expansion of the federal government’s powers.

3. Despite higher taxes, corporate profits soared, aided by the suspension of antitrust laws and the institution of price guarantees for war work.

4. The Food Administration encouraged farmers to expand production of wheat and other grains, and at no time was it necessary for the government to contemplate domestic food rationing.

5. The Fuel Administration ordered the temporary closing of factories in the winter of 1917–18, and the Railroad War Board took temporary control of the railroads.

6. With the signing of the armistice in 1918, the WIB was disbanded; most Americans could tolerate government planning power during an emergency, but not permanently.

7. The United States’s participation in the war lasted just eighteen months, but it left enduring legacy: the modern bureaucratic state.

8. The National War Labor Board (NWLB) and acute labor shortages helped improve labor’s position with eight-hour days, time-and-a-half pay for overtime, and equal pay for women.

9. During the war emergency, northern factories actively recruited African Americans, spawning the "Great Migration" from the South.

10. Wartime labor shortages prompted many Mexican Americans to leave farm labor for industrial jobs in rapidly growing southwestern cities.

11. About 1 million women joined the labor force for the first time, and many of the 8 million already working switched from low-paying fields to higher-paying industrial work.

B. Progressive Reform in Wartime

1. Members of the National American Woman Suffrage Association (NAWSA) felt that women’s patriotic service could advance the cause of woman suffrage.

2. Members of the National Woman’s Party (NWP) were arrested and jailed for picketing the White House; they became martyrs and drew attention to the issue of woman suffrage.

3. In January 1918, Woodrow Wilson withdrew his opposition to a federal woman suffrage amendment; on August 26, 1920, the goal of woman suffrage was finally achieved with the Nineteenth Amendment.

4. Throughout the mobilization period, reformers pushed for social reforms: addressing children’s welfare, launching a campaign against sexually transmitted diseases, and lobbying for a ban on drinking.

5. Prohibition met with resistance in the cities because alcoholic beverages played an important role in the social life of certain ethnic cultures.

6. Many states already had prohibition laws, and the Eighteenth Amendment to the Constitution demonstrated the widening influence of the government in personal behavior.

7. Federal agencies were quickly disbanded after the war was over, reflecting the unease most Americans felt about a strong bureaucratic state.

8. The wartime collaboration between government and business gave corporate leaders more influence in shaping the economy and government policy.

C. Promoting National Unity

1. Formed in 1917, the Committee on Public Information (CPI) promoted public support for the war and acted as a nationalizing force by promoting the development of a national ideology.

2. During the war, the CPI touched the lives of practically every American, and in its zeal, it often ventured into hatemongering against the Germans.

3. Many Americans found themselves targets of suspicion as self-appointed agents of the American Protective League spied on neighbors and coworkers.

4. The CPI encouraged ethnic groups to give up their Old World customs in the spirit of "One Hundred Percent Americanism," an insistence on conformity and an intolerance of dissent.

5. Law enforcement officials tolerated little criticism of established values and institutions; legal tools for curbing dissent included the Espionage Act of 1917 and the Sedition Act of 1918.

6. The acts, which defined treason and sedition loosely, led to the conviction of more than a thousand people, and the courts rarely resisted wartime legal excesses.

7. In Schenck v. United States, the Supreme Court upheld limits on freedom of speech that would not have been acceptable in peacetime.

III. An Unsettled Peace, 1919–1920

A. The Treaty of Versailles

1. In January 1917 President Wilson proposed a "peace without victory," and the keystone of his postwar plans was a permanent League of Nations.

2. The Allies accepted Wilson’s Fourteen Points as the basis for the peace negotiations for the Treaty of Versailles that began in January 1919.

3. Wilson called for open diplomacy, freedom of navigation upon the seas, arms reduction, the removal of trade barriers, and an international commitment to national self-determination.

4. According to Article X of the peace treaty, the League of Nations would curb aggressor countries through collective military action and mediate disputes to prevent future wars.

5. Representatives from twenty-seven countries attended the peace conference in Versailles, but representatives from Germany and Russia were not invited.

6. France, Italy, and Great Britain wanted to treat themselves to the spoils of war by demanding heavy reparations; they had made secret agreements to divide up the German colonies.

7. National self-determination bore fruit in the creation of the independent states of Austria, Hungary, Poland, Yugoslavia, and Czecho-slovakia.

8. The creation of the new nations of Finland, Estonia, Lithuania, and Latvia upheld the principle of self-determination, while also isolating Soviet Russia from the rest of Europe.

9. Wilson won only limited concessions regarding the colonial empires, and topics such as freedom of the seas and free trade never came up because of Allied resistance.

10. A peace treaty was signed in Versailles on June 28, 1919, but when Wilson presented the treaty to the U.S. Senate, it did not receive the necessary two-thirds vote for ratification.

11. Progressive senators felt that the treaty was too conservative, "irreconcilables" disagreed with U.S. participation in European affairs, and Republicans wanted to amend Article X.

12. In September of 1919, Wilson went on a speaking tour to defend the treaty, but the tour was cut short because he suffered a severe stroke.

13. Wilson remained inflexible in his refusal to compromise, but the treaty was not ratified when it came up for a vote in the Senate in 1919 and again in 1920.

14. Wartime issues were only partially resolved, and some unresolved problems played a major role in the coming of World War II, like the competing ethnic nationalism in the Balkans.

B. Racial Strife and Labor Unrest

1. Many African Americans emerged from the war determined to stand up for their rights and contributed to a spirit of black militancy that characterized the early 1920s.

2. Black migration and blacks’ raised expectations as a result of service in the war exacerbated white racism; black lynchings occurred in the South, and race riots broke out in the North.

3. A variety of tensions were present in cities where violence erupted: black voters determined the winners of close elections, and blacks competed with whites for jobs and housing.

4. Workers of all races had hopes for a better life, but after the war employers resumed attacks on union activity, and rapidly rising inflation threatened to wipe out wage increases.

5. As a result of workers’ determination and employers’ resistance, one in every five workers went on strike in 1919; strikes by steel workers, shipyard workers in Seattle, and policemen in Boston shocked many Americans.

C. The Red Scare

1. Americans harbored a pervasive fear of radicalism and a longstanding anxiety about unassimilated immigrants, an anxiety that had been made worse by the war.

2. The Russian Revolution of 1917 so alarmed the Allies that Wilson sent several thousand troops to Russia in hopes of weakening the Bolshevik regime.

3. American fears of radicalism were deepened as the labor unrest coincided with the founding of the Bolsheviks’ Third International (or Comintern) to export communist doctrine.

4. Ironically, as public concern about domestic Bolshevism increased, the U.S. Communist Party and the Communist Labor Party were rapidly losing members and political power.

5. Tensions mounted with a series of bombings in the early spring of 1919; in November, Attorney General A. Mitchell Palmer staged the first of what was known as "Palmer raids."

6. Lacking the protection of U.S. citizenship, thousands of aliens faced deportation without formal trial or indictment.

7. Palmer predicted that a conspiracy attempt to overthrow the government would occur in 1920, and his hopes of becoming president were dashed when the incident never occurred.

8. Nicola Sacco and Bartolomeo Vanzetti — alien draft evaders — were arrested for robbery and murder, were denied a new trial even though evidence surfaced that suggested their innocence, and were finally executed in 1927.

9. America emerged from the war a major international power, with a stronger federal government and enlarged bureaucracy, unwelcoming toward liberal social reforms.

Chapter 23

Chapter Annotated Outline

I. Business-Government Partnership of the 1920s

A. Politics in the Republican "New Era"

1. In the 1920 election, Republicans Warren G. Harding and Calvin Coolidge promised a return to "normalcy," which meant a strong probusiness stance and conservative cultural values.

2. Central to what Republicans termed the "New Era" was business-government cooperation.

3. A new tax cut benefited wealthy individuals and corporations, and for the most part, the Federal Trade Commission ignored the antitrust laws.

4. The Department of Commerce, headed by Herbert Hoover, assisted private trade associations by cooperating in such areas as product standardization and wage and price controls.

5. When President Harding died of a heart attack in August 1923, evidence of widespread fraud and corruption in his administration had just come to light.

6. Secretary of the Interior Albert Fall became the first cabinet officer in American history to serve a prison sentence; he took bribes in connection with oil reserves in Wyoming and California.

7. Vice president Calvin Coolidge took Harding’s place as president and soon announced his candidacy for the presidency in 1924.

8. Democrats disagreed over Prohibition, immigration restriction, and the mounting power of the racist and anti-immigrant Ku Klux Klan.

9. Democrats nominated John W. Davis for president and Charles W. Bryan for vice president, and in a third-party challenge, Senator Robert M. La Follette ran on the Progressive ticket.

10. A decline in voter turnout during the 1924 election was due to a long-term drop in voting by men and not to the absence of votes by newly enfranchised women.

11. The Women’s Joint Congressional Committee lobbied actively for reform legislation, and its major accomplishment was the Sheppard-Towner Federal Maternity and Infancy Act.

12. Americans were unenthusiastic about increased taxation and more governmental bureaucracy after enduring years of progressive reforms and an expanded federal presence in World War I.

B. The Heyday of Big Business

1. In the immediate postwar years, the nation suffered rampant inflation accompanied by intense business activity; federal efforts to halt inflation produced the recession of 1920–1921.

2. In 1922, stimulated by an abundance of consumer products, the economy began a recovery that continued through 1929.

3. The federal government was soon recording a budget surplus, and this economic expansion provided the backdrop for the partnership between business and government.

4. New techniques of management and mass production led to growth in manufacturing output; demand for goods and services kept unemployment low.

5. The spending power of many Americans increased, yet income distribution reflected significant disparity: 5 percent of American families received one-third of all income.

6. Agriculture and the coal and textiles industries expanded in response to wartime demand, which dropped sharply at war’s end; their troubles foreshadowed the Great Depression.

7. Throughout the 1920s, business leaders enjoyed enormous popularity and respect; the most revered businessman of the decade was Henry Ford.

8. The 1920s saw large-scale corporate organizations with bureaucratic structures of authority replace family-run enterprises.

9. Oligopolies became the norm in manufacturing, and financial institutions also expanded and consolidated.

10. Members of the working class enjoyed higher wages and a better standard of living, but scientific management techniques reduced workers’ control over their labor.

11. "Welfare capitalism," the American Plan (or nonunion shop), and Supreme Court decisions that limited workers’ ability to strike all helped to erode the strength of unions.

C. Economic Power Abroad

1. During the 1920s the United States was the most productive country in the world and competed in foreign markets that eagerly desired American consumer products.

2. The United States became the world’s largest creditor nation, causing a dramatic shift of power in the world’s capital markets.

3. American companies, such as General Electric, Ford, and Standard Oil, aggressively sought investment opportunities abroad.

4. European countries had difficulty repaying their war debts to the United States due to tariffs such as the Fordney-McCumber Tariff of 1922 and the Hawley-Smoot Tariff of 1930.

5. The Dawes Plan of 1924 offered Germany substantial loans from American banks and a reduction in the amount of reparations owed to the Allies.

6. U.S. officials continued the quest for peaceful ways to dominate the Western Hemisphere but retreated slightly from military intervention in Latin America.

7. International cooperation on the American side came through forums such as the 1921 Washington Naval Arms Conference.

8. By placing limits on naval expansion, policymakers hoped to encourage stability in areas like the Far East and to protect the fragile postwar economy from an expensive arms race.

9. Through the Kellogg-Briand Peace Act, the United States joined other nations in condemning militarism; critics complained that the act lacked mechanisms for enforcement.

10. U.S. policymakers vacillated between wanting to play a larger role in world events and fearing that treaties and responsibilities would limit their ability to act unilaterally.

II. A New National Culture

A. A Consumer Culture

1. Although millions of Americans shared similar daily experiences, participation in commercial mass culture was not universal, nor did it mean conversion to mainstream values.

2. Many Americans stretched their incomes by buying consumer goods on the newly devised installment plan.

3. Electric appliances made housewives’ chores easier, yet their leisure time did not dramatically increase since more middle-class housewives did their own housework and laundry.

4. The advertising industry spent billions of dollars annually to entice consumers into buying their goods; advertisers made consumption a cultural ideal for most of the middle class.

5. Mass production of automobiles stimulated the prosperity of the 1920s, and by the end of the decade, Americans owned about 80 percent of the world’s automobiles.

6. Auto production stimulated the steel, petroleum, chemical, rubber, and glass industries, and caused an increase in highway construction.

7. Car ownership spurred the growth of suburbs, contributed to real-estate speculation, and spawned the first shopping center.

8. The American Automobile Association, founded in 1902, reported in 1929 that almost a third of the population took vacations by automobile.

B. Mass Media and New Patterns of Leisure

1. Silent movies like The Great Train Robbery began to run in nickelodeons around the turn of the century; mostly working-class Americans attended the shows.

2. By the end of World War I, the United States was producing 90 percent of the world’s cinema; as feature films were shown in large ornate theaters, middle-class Americans began to attend.

3. Clara Bow, the "It Girl," and other "flappers" burst onto the American scene to represent emancipated womanhood, although in actuality they reflected only a tiny minority of women.

4. Movies became even more powerful cultural influences with the advent of "talkies"; The Jazz Singer (1927) was the first feature-length film to offer sound.

5. Jazz was such an important part of the new mass culture that the 1920s are often referred to as the "Jazz Age"; jazz expressed black dissent in the face of mainstream white values.

6. Most of the early jazz musicians were African Americans; some of the best-known black jazz performers were "Jelly Roll" Morton, Louis Armstrong, Bessie Smith, and Duke Ellington.

7. In the 1920s tabloid newspapers and magazines like The Saturday Evening Post, Reader’s Digest, and Good Housekeeping helped establish national standards of taste and behavior.

8. Professional radio broadcasting began in 1920, and by 1929 about 40 percent of households owned a radio and tuned in to radio shows like Amos ’n’ Andy.

9. Leisure became increasingly tied to consumption and mass media, as Americans had more time and energy to spend on recreation.

10. Baseball continued to be a national pastime with the rise of stars like Babe Ruth; black athletes like Satchel Paige played in Negro leagues.

11. Charles Lindbergh captivated the nation when he flew The Spirit of St. Louis on the first successful nonstop flight between New York and Paris in 1927.

III. Dissenting Values and Cultural Conflict

A. The Rise of Nativism

1. As farmers struggled with severe economic problems, rural communities lost residents to the cities at an alarming rate.

2. The mass media generally reflected the cosmopolitan values of cities, and many Americans worried that the cities, and the immigrants living there, would soon dominate the culture.

3. Nativist animosity fueled a new drive against immigration, and in 1921 Congress passed a bill based on a quota system that limited the number of immigrants entering the United States.

4. In 1924 the National Origins Act reduced immigration even further, and after 1927, the law set a cap of 150,000 immigrants per year; Japanese immigrants were excluded entirely.

5. Until the Great Depression, nativists and orga-nized labor lobbied Congress to close a loophole in the immigration law that allowed Mexican immigrants to enter America.

6. The Ku Klux Klan of the 1920s harassed Catholics and Jews as well as blacks, and this modern Klan appealed to both rural and urban people. After 1925 the Klan declined rapidly.

B. Legislating Values: The Scopes Trial and Prohibition

1. "Modernists" tried to reconcile Darwin’s theory of evolution with recent technological and scientific discoveries, while "Fundamentalists" interpreted the Bible literally.

2. Religious controversy entered the political arena when some states enacted legislation to block the teaching of evolution in the schools.

3. The John T. Scopes trial of 1925 symbolizes the clash between the two competing value systems: cosmopolitan and traditional.

4. Prohibition involved the power of the state to enforce social values; drinking did decline after passage of the Eighteenth Amendment, but noncompliance was widespread in cities.

5. The "drys" supported the Eighteenth Amendment, but the "wets" argued that Prohibition undermined respect for the law and impinged upon individuals’ liberties; the amendment was repealed on December 5, 1933.

C. Intellectual Crosscurrents

1. Some writers and intellectuals of the 1920s were so repelled by what they saw as the complacent, moralistic, and anti-intellectual tone of American life that they settled in Europe.

2. The war inspired T. S. Eliot’s The Waste Land, John Dos Passos’s The Three Soldiers and 1919, and Ernest Hemingway’s In Our Time, The Sun Also Rises, and A Farewell to Arms.

3. The modernist movement, which was marked by skepticism and technical experimentation in literature, invigorated American writing abroad and at home.

4. In his American Mercury, H. L. Mencken championed writers like Sherwood Anderson, Sinclair Lewis, and Theodore Dreiser, who satirized the provincialism of American society.

5. In the 1920s poetry enjoyed a renaissance in the works of Robert Frost, Wallace Stevens, Marianne Moore, and William Carlos Williams.

6. The creative energy of writers such as Edith Wharton and William Faulkner led to masterpieces like The Age of Innocence and The Sound and the Fury, respectively.

7. The influence of Freudian psychology was evident in the experimental plays The Hairy Ape and Desire Under the Elms by Eugene O’Neill.

8. The "Harlem Renaissance" was a movement among young writers and artists who broke with older genteel traditions of black literature to reclaim a cultural identity with African roots.

9. Authors like Claude McKay and Zora Neale Hurston represented the "New Negro" in fiction; Countee Cullen and Langston Hughes turned to poetry and Augusta Savage to sculpture.

10. The Universal Negro Improvement Association was the black working class’s first mass movement; under Marcus Garvey it published Negro World and supported black enterprise. The movement collapsed when Garvey was deported for fund-raising irregularities involving the Black Star Line company.

D. Cultural Clash in the Election of 1928

1. The 1924 Democratic National Convention revealed an intensely polarized party, split between the urban machines and its rural wing.

2. In 1928 the urban wing nominated Alfred E. Smith; a descendant of Irish immigrants, a product of Tammany Hall, and a Catholic, Smith alienated many Democratic voters.

3. For Smith’s supporters, he embodied a new America; to them, his nomination signified that perhaps the country would embrace a more pluralistic conception of American identity.

4. Republican Herbert Hoover embodied the new managerial and technological elite that was restructuring the nation’s economic order; he was seen as more progressive than Smith.

5. Although they lost the election, Democratic voter turnout increased substantially in urban areas; the Democrats were on their way to fashioning a new identity as the party of the urban masses.

6. Having claimed credit for the prosperity of the 1920s, Republicans could not escape the blame for the depression; it was twenty-four years before a Republican won the presidency again.

7. Despite cultural conflicts and workplace issues, as Hoover began his presidency in 1929 Americans were generally optimistic and expected prosperity and progress to continue.

Chapter 24

Chapter Annotated Outline

I. The Coming of the Great Depression

A. Causes of the Depression

1. Since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution, the United States had experienced recessions or panics at least every twenty years, but none as severe as the Great Depression of the 1930s.

2. The stock market had become the symbol of the nation's prosperity, yet only about 10 percent of the nation's households owned stock.

3. In 1928 and 1929 stock prices rose an average of 40 percent; market activity, such as margin buying, was essentially unregulated.

4. On "Black Thursday," October 24, and "Black Tuesday," October 29, 1929, overextended investors began to sell their portfolios; waves of panic selling ensued.

5. Commercial banks and speculators had invested in stocks; the impact of the Great Crash was felt across the nation as banks failed and many middle-class Americans lost their life savings.

6. The crash destroyed the faith of those who viewed the stock market as the crowning symbol of American prosperity, precipitating a crisis of confidence that prolonged the depression.

7. Longstanding weaknesses in the economy accounted for the length and severity of the Great Depression; agriculture and certain basic industries had suffered setbacks in the 1920s.

8. Once the depression began, America's unequal income distribution left the majority of people unable to spend the amount of money needed to revive the economy.

9. The more the economy contracted, the more people expected the depression to last, and the longer they expected it to last, the more afraid they became to spend or invest their money.

10. In 1930 many farmers went bankrupt causing rural banks to fail; the rural banks defaulted on their obligations to urban banks, which also began to collapse.

11. In 1931 the Federal Reserve System significantly increased the discount rate, squeezing the money supply, forcing prices down and depriving businesses of funds for investment.

12. Americans kept their dollars stashed away rather than depositing them, further tightening the money supply.

B. The Worldwide Depression

1. Domestic factors far outweighed international causes of America's protracted decline, yet the economic problems of the rest of the world affected the United States, and vice versa.

2. By the late 1920s, European economies were staggering under the weight of huge debts and trade imbalances with the United States; by 1931 most European economies had collapsed.

3. In response to the Hawley-Smoot Tariff of 1930, foreign governments imposed their own trade restrictions, further intensifying the worldwide depression.

4. From 1929 to 1933, the U.S. gross national product fell by almost half, private investment plummeted 88 percent, and unemployment rose from 3.2 percent to a staggering 24.9 percent; 1 in 4 was out of a job, and the rest faced wage cuts.

II. Hard Times

A. The Invisible Scar

1. Race, ethnicity, age, class, and gender all influenced how Americans experienced the depression.

2. People who believed Horatio Alger's ethic of upward mobility through hard work suddenly found themselves floundering in a society that no longer had a job for them.

3. After exhausting their savings and credit, many families faced the humiliation of going on relief, and even then, the amount they received was a pittance.

4. Hardships left an "invisible scar," and for the majority of Americans, the fear of losing control over their lives was the crux of the Great Depression.

B. Families Face the Depression

1. On the whole, far more families stayed together during the depression than broke apart.

2. Men considered themselves failures if they were no longer breadwinners, while women's sense of self-importance increased as they struggled to keep their families afloat.

3. Americans as a whole maintained a fairly high level of consumption during the depression; deflation lowered the cost of living, and buying on credit stretched reduced incomes.

4. Americans spent their money differently during the depression; things once considered luxuries — cigarettes, movies, and radios — became necessities to help counteract the bleak times.

5. One measure of the depression's impact on family life was the change in demographic trends: the marriage rate fell, the divorce rate fell, and the birth rate dropped drastically.

6. In United States v. One Package of Japanese Pessaries (1936), a federal court struck down all federal restrictions on the dissemination of contraceptive information.

7. Abortion remained illegal, but the number of women undergoing the procedure increased.

8. Margaret Sanger pioneered the establishment of professionally staffed birth control clinics and in 1937 won the American Medical Association's endorsement of contraception.

9. In the 1930s the total number of married women employed outside the home rose 50 percent; working women faced resentment and discrimination in the workplace.

10. Many fields where women workers already had been concentrated suffered less from economic contraction than did the heavy industry, which employed men almost exclusively.

11. Observers paid little attention to the impact of the depression on the black family, as white men and women willingly sought out jobs usually held by blacks or other minorities.

12. Some of America's young people became so demoralized by the depression that they became hobos or "sisters of the road."

13. College was a privilege for a distinct minority, and many college students became involved in political movements; the Student Strike against War drew student support across the country.

14. Youths enjoyed more education in the 1930s, yet men who entered their twenties during the depression era had less successful careers than those who came before or after them.

C. Popular Culture Views the Depression

1. Americans turned to popular culture to alleviate the trauma of the depression.

2. In response to public outcry against immorality in the movies, the industry established a means of self-censorship, the Production Code Administration.

3. Many movies contained messages that reflected a sense of the social crisis engulfing the nation and reaffirmed traditional values like democracy, individualism, and egalitarianism; others contained criticisms that the system wasn't working.

4. Popular gangster movies suggested that incompetent or corrupt politicians, police, and businessmen were as much to blame for organized crime as the gangsters themselves.

5. Depression-era films by Frank Capra pitted the virtuous small town hero against corrupt urban shysters whose machinations subverted the nation's ideals.

6. Radio offered more than escape; the business failures of radio characters mirrored the lives of many Americans and reaffirmed the traditional values of diligence, saving, and generosity.

7. In a resurgence of traditionalism, attendance at religious services rose, and the home was once again the center for pleasurable pastimes like playing Monopoly, reading aloud, and talking.

III. Harder Times

A. African Americans in the Depression

1. African Americans, who had always known discrimination and limited opportunities, viewed the depression differently than most whites.

2. Despite the black migration to the cities of the North, most African Americans still lived in the South and earned less than a quarter of the annual average wages of a factory worker.

3. The Southern Tenant Farmers' Union, which some black farmers joined, could do little to reform an agricultural system that depended solely on cotton.

4. A 1931 Scottsboro, Alabama, rape case — along with an increase in the number of lynchings — gave blacks a strong incentive to head for the North and the Midwest.

5. In 1935 Harlem was the setting of the only major race riot of the decade when anger exploded over the lack of jobs, a slowdown in relief services, and economic exploitation of blacks.

6. There was growing black allegiance to the Democratic Party in the 1930s, which in return offered African Americans some hope for their future.

B. Dust Bowl Migrations

1. To capture a profit, farmers stripped the land of its natural vegetation, destroying the ecological balance of the plains; when the rains dried up, there was nothing to hold the soil.

2. John Steinbeck's Grapes of Wrath immortalized the Okies who headed west in response to the ecological disaster encouraged by promises of good jobs in California.

3. A few Okies were professionals, business proprietors, or white-collar workers, and the drive west was fairly easy along Route 66.

4. California agriculture was large-scale, intensive, and diversified, and its massive irrigation system laid the groundwork for serious future environmental problems.

5. Key California crops had staggered harvest times and required a great deal of transient labor; a steady supply of cheap migrant labor made this type of farming feasible.

6. At first migrants met hostility from old-time Californians, but they stayed and filled important roles in California's expanding economy.

C. Mexican American Communities

1. With fear of competition from foreign workers at a peak, many Mexican Americans left California and returned to Mexico.

2. Forced "repatriation" slowed after 1932, but deportation of Mexican Americans was still a constant threat and a reminder of their fragile status in the United States.

3. César Chávez, a Mexican American, became one of the twentieth century's most influential labor organizers.

4. Many Mexican Americans worked as miners or held industrial jobs where they established a vibrant tradition of labor activism.

5. Mexican American women played a leading role in the United Cannery, Agricultural, Packing, and Allied Workers of America union.

6. Joining labor unions and becoming more involved in American politics were important steps in the creation of a distinctive Mexican American ethnic identity.

IV. Herbert Hoover and the Great Depression

A. Hoover Responds

1. Hoover's response to the depression was slow because he failed to view the situation realistically.

2. Hoping to avoid coercive measures on the part of the federal government, Herbert Hoover asked businesses to maintain wages and production levels voluntarily during the depression.

3. Hoover cut federal taxes, asked governments to increase public construction projects, signed the Agricultural Marketing Act, and declared a moratorium on payment of the Allied debts.

4. A 33 percent tax increase designed to balance the budget choked investment and contributed significantly to the continuation of the depression.

5. The Reconstruction Finance Corporation (RFC) was the first federal institution created to intervene directly in the economy during peacetime; the "trickle down" effect was minimal.

6. Hoover believed that privately organized charities were sufficient to meet the nation's social welfare needs and refused to consider plans for direct federal relief for those out of work.

B. Rising Discontent

1. Many citizens began to harbor hard feelings against Hoover; his willingness to bail out banks and businesses, though not individuals, added to his reputation of cold-heartedness.

2. New terms entered the American vocabulary: "Hoovervilles" were shanty towns; "Hoover flags" were empty pockets turned inside out; and "Hoover blankets" were newspapers.

3. Even as some Americans were going hungry, farmers formed the Farm Holiday Association and destroyed food rather than accept prices that would not cover their costs.

4. Bitter labor strikes occurred in the depths of the depression, despite the threat that strikers would lose their jobs.

5. In 1931 and 1932 violence broke out in cities as the unemployed battled local authorities over inadequate relief; some of the actions were organized by the Communist Party.

6. Hoover's reputation was further damaged in 1932 as newsreels showed the U.S. Army moving against its own veterans, the "Bonus Army," in Washington.

C. The 1932 Election: A New Order

1. As the 1932 election approached, the nation overall was not in a revolutionary mood; Americans initially blamed themselves rather than the system for their hardships.

2. The Republicans nominated Hoover once again for president, and the Democrats nominated Governor Franklin Delano Roosevelt of New York.

3. In 1921 Roosevelt had suffered an attack of polio that left both his legs paralyzed, yet he emerged from the illness a stronger, more resilient man.

4. Roosevelt won the election, yet in his campaign he hinted only vaguely at new approaches to alleviate the depression; people voted as much against Hoover as for Roosevelt.

5. The 1932 election marked the emergence of a Democratic coalition that would help shape national politics for the next four decades.

6. In the worst winter of the depression, unemployment stood at 20 to 25 percent and the nation's banking system was close to collapse.

7. The depression had totally overwhelmed public welfare institutions, and private charity and public relief reached only a fraction of the needy; hunger haunted cities and rural areas alike.

Chapter 25

Chapter Annotated Outline

I. The New Deal Takes Over, 1933-1935

1. Roosevelt's proposed New Deal eventually came to stand for his administration's complex set of responses to the nation's economiccollapse.

2. The Great Depression destroyed Herbert Hoover's reputation and helped to make Roosevelt's.

3. Roosevelt's ideology was not vastly different from Hoover's, but the New Deal programs put people to work, instilling hope and restoring the nation's confidence.

A. Roosevelt's Style of Leadership

1. Roosevelt crafted his administration's programs in response to shifting political and economic conditions rather than according to a set ideology or plan.

2. Roosevelt established a close rapport with the American people; his use of radio-broadcasted "fireside chats" fostered a sense of intimacy.

3. Roosevelt dramatically expanded the role of the executive branch in initiating policy, thereby helping to create the modern presidency.

4. During the interregnum, Roosevelt relied so heavily on the advice of certain Columbia University professors that the press dubbed them the "Brain Trust."

B. The Hundred Days

1. After the Emergency Banking Act was passed, the president reassured citizens that the banks were safe; when the banks reopened, there were more deposits than withdrawals.

2. A legislative session, known as the "hundred days," saw fifteen pieces of major legislation enacted and remains one of the most productive legislative sessions ever.

3. Congress created the Homeowners Loan Corporation to refinance home mortgages, and the Glass-Steagall Act curbed speculation and created the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation.

4. The Civilian Conservation Corps was created, and the Tennessee Valley Authority received approval for its plan of government-sponsored regional development and public energy.

5. In a move that lifted public spirits, beer was legalized. Full repeal of Prohibition came in December of 1933.

6. The Agricultural Adjustment Act's benefits were distributed unevenly; it harmed marginal farmers while it consolidated the economic and political clout of larger landholders.

7. The National Recovery Administration's codes established minimum wages, maximum hours, outlawed child labor, and gave workers union rights.

8. Trade associations, controlled by large companies, tended to dominate the NRA's code-drafting process, thus solidifying the power of large businesses at the expense of smaller ones.

9. The Federal Emergency Relief Administration, set up in May 1933, offered federal money to states for relief programs.

10. The effectiveness of the Public Works Administration was limited, but the Civil Works Administration put 2.6 million men and women to work within thirty days.

11. Abandoning the international gold standard allowed the Federal Reserve System to manipulate the value of the dollar in response to fluctuating economic conditions.

12. In 1934 the Securities and Exchange Commission was established to regulate the stock market and prevent abuses.

13. The Banking Act of 1935 placed the control of money-market policies at the federal level rather than with regional banks and encouraged centralization of the nation's banking system.

C. The New Deal under Attack

1. Business leaders and conservative Democrats formed the Liberty League in 1934 to lobby against the New Deal and its "reckless spending" and "socialist" reforms.

2. In Schechter v. United States, the Supreme Court ruled that the National Industrial Recovery Act represented an unconstitutional delegation of legislative power to the executive branch.

3. Citizens like Francis Townsend thought that the New Deal had not gone far enough; Townsend proposed the Old Age Revolving Pension Plan.

4. In 1935 Father Charles Coughlin organized the National Union for Social Justice to promote his views against the New Deal and Roosevelt.

5. In 1934 Senator Huey Long broke with the New Deal and established his own national movement, the Share Our Wealth Society.

II. The Second New Deal, 1935-1938

A. Legislative Accomplishments

1. The Second New Deal emphasized reform and promoted legislation to increase the role of the federal government in providing for the welfare of citizens.

2. The Wagner Act of 1935 upheld the right of industrial workers to join a union and established the nonpartisan National Labor Relations Board to further protect workers' rights.

3. With the 1935 Social Security Act, the United States joined countries like Great Britain and Germany in providing old-age pensions and unemployment compensation to citizens.

4. Categorical assistance programs for those who clearly could not support themselves expanded over the years until they became an integral part of the American welfare system.

5. The Works Progress Administration became the main federal relief agency and put relief workers directly onto the federal payroll.

6. The Revenue Act of 1935 increased estate and corporate taxes and instituted higher personal-income-tax rates in the top brackets.

7. The broad range of New Deal programs brought new voters into the Democratic coalition as the 1936 election approached.

8. Roosevelt beat out the Republican's Alfred M. Landon in a landslide; there was no third-party threat since the Union Party garnered less than 2 percent of the votes.

B. Stalemate

1. Roosevelt attempted to make fundamental changes in the structure of the Supreme Court after it struck down the NRA, in Schechter v. United States, and the Agricultural Adjustment Act.

2. The issue became a moot point when the Supreme Court upheld several key pieces of New Deal legislation and a series of resignations created vacancies on the Court.

3. Roosevelt managed to reshape the Supreme Court to suit his liberal philosophy through seven new appointments, but his handling of the Court issue was a costly blunder.

4. Though a conservative coalition tried to impede social legislation, two reform acts did pass: the National Housing Act of 1937 and the Fair Labor Standards Act of 1938.

5. A steady improvement of the economy prompted Roosevelt to slash the federal budget in 1937, Congress to cut the WPA's funding in half, and the Federal Reserve to tightened credit.

6. Unemployment soared to 19 percent; having taken credit for the recovery between 1933 and 1937, Roosevelt also had to take the blame for the "Roosevelt recession."

7. Roosevelt spent his way out of the downturn; he and his economic advisors were groping toward John Maynard Keynes's theory of using deficit spending to stimulate the economy.

8. Roosevelt's attempt to "purge" the Democratic Party of some of his most conservative opponents only widened the liberal-conservative rift as the 1938 election approached.

III. The New Deal's Impact on Society

A. New Deal Constituencies

1. During the 1930s, organized labor won the battle for recognition, higher wages, seniority systems, and grievance procedures.

2. While few workers in the Congress of Industrial Organizations unions actually joined the Communist Party, it had a great influence in labor organizing in the 1930s.

3. The CIO recognized that to succeed, unions had to become more inclusive, and they worked deliberately to attract new groups to the labor movement.

4. The CIO scored its first two major victories with the United Automobile Workers at General Motors and the Steel Workers Organizing Committee at the U.S. Steel Corporation.

5. The CIO quickly allied itself with the Democratic Party, hoping to use its influence to elect candidates that were sympathetic to labor and social justice.

6. Under the experimental climate of the New Deal, Roosevelt appointed the first female cabinet member, the first female director of the mint, and a female judge on the court of appeals.

7. Eleanor Roosevelt had worked to increase women's power in political parties, labor unions, and education; as first lady, she pushed the president and the New Deal to do more.

8. New Deal programs were marred by grave flaws; some NRA codes set a lower minimum wage for women than men, and the CCC did not hire women at all.

9. Although some New Deal programs reflected prevailing racist attitudes, blacks did receive significant benefits from programs that were for the poor regardless of race.

10. The Resettlement Act fought for the rights of black farmers, and many blacks reasoned that the aid from Washington outweighed the discrimination present in many federal programs.

11. Mary McLeod Bethune headed the "black cabinet," an informal network that worked for fairer treatment of blacks by New Deal agencies.

12. Since the Civil War, blacks had voted Republican, but in 1936, blacks outside the South gave Roosevelt 71 percent of their votes. Blacks have remained overwhelmingly Democratic ever since.

13. Under the New Deal, Mexican Americans benefited from relief programs; Democrats made it clear that they considered Mexican Americans an important part of the New Deal coalition.

14. The Indian Reorganization Act of 1934 and other changes in federal policies under the "Indian New Deal" did little to improve the lives of Native Americans.

B. The New Deal and the Land

1. The expansion of federal responsibilities in the 1930s created a climate conducive to conservation efforts, as did public concern heightened by the devastation in the dust bowl.

2. The Tennessee Valley Authority integrated flood control, reforestation, and agricultural and industrial development; a hydroelectric grid provided cheap power for the valley's residents.

3. Agents from the Soil Conservation Service in the Department of Agriculture taught farmers the proper technique for tilling hillsides.

4. Government agronomists tried to prevent soil erosion through better agricultural practices and windbreaks like the Shelterbelts.

5. Cabins, shelters, picnic areas, and lodges in American state parks, built in a "government rustic" style, are witness to the New Deal ethos of recreation coexisting with conservation.

6. The New Deal was ahead of its time in attention to conservation, but many of the tactics used in its projects are now considered intrusive.

C. The New Deal and the Arts

1. A WPA project known as "Federal One" put unemployed artists, actors, and writers to work; "art for the millions" became a popular New Deal slogan.

2. The Federal Art Project commissioned murals for public buildings and post offices across the country.

3. Under the Federal Music Project, government-sponsored orchestras toured the country and presented free concerts that emphasized American themes.

4. The Federal Writer's Project, at its height, employed about 5,000 writers, some of whom later achieved great fame.

5. The only time that America had a federally supported national theater was during the Federal Theatre Project; talented directors, actors, and playwrights offered their services.

6. The documentary, probably the decade's most distinctive genre, influenced practically every aspect of American culture: literature, photography, art, music, film, dance, theater, and radio.

7. The March of Time newsreels, which were shown to audiences before feature films, presented the news of the world for the pretelevision age.

8. The Resettlement Administration's historical section documented and photographed American life for the government; their photos are a visual representation of life in the United States during the depression years.

D. The Legacies of the New Deal

1. For the first time Americans experienced the federal government as a part of their everyday lives through Social Security payments, farm loans, relief work, and mortgage guarantees.

2. The government made a commitment to intervene when the private sector could not guarantee economic stability, and federal regulation brought order and regularity to economic life.

3. The federal government accepted primary responsibility for the individual and collective welfare of the people with the development of the welfare state.

4. The New Deal Democratic coalition contained potentially fatal contradictions mainly involving the issue of race, and the resulting fissures would eventually weaken the coalition.

5. As Europe moved toward war and Japan flexed its muscles in the Far East, Roosevelt put domestic reform on the back burner and focused on international relations.

Chapter 26

Chapter Annotated Outline

I. The Road to War

A. Depression Diplomacy

1. During the early years of the New Deal, America's involvement in international affairs was limited.

2. In 1933 the United States formally recognized the Soviet Union, and in 1934 Congress repealed the Platt Amendment, a relic of the Spanish-American War.

3. The Good Neighbor Policy had its limits, as was shown by the fact that the U.S. Navy kept a base at Cuba's Guantanamo Bay and continued to meddle in Cuban politics.

4. Partly due to disillusionment with American participation in World War I, isolationism built in Congress and the nation throughout the 1920s.

5. The Neutrality Act of 1935 imposed an embargo on arms trading with countries at war and declared that American citizens traveled on the ships of belligerent nations at their own risk.

6. In 1936 the Neutrality Act was expanded to ban loans to belligerents, and in 1937 it adopted a "cash-and-carry" provision.

7. Despite their Loyalist sympathies, the neutral stance of the United States, Great Britain, and France virtually assured a fascist victory in the 1936 Spanish Civil War.

B. Aggression and Appeasement

1. In 1931 Japan occupied Manchuria; then in 1937 it launched a full-scale invasion of China. The League of Nations condemned the aggression, and Japan withdrew from the League.

2. In 1935 Italy invaded Ethiopia, and by 1936, the Italian subjugation of Ethiopia was complete.

3. Adolf Hitler and his National Socialist (Nazi) Party, who took control of Germany in 1933, believed that "inferior races" and other "undesirables" had to make way for the "master race."

4. Hitler's first concentration camp was established in 1933, and once the war started, he began the extermination of the Jews.

5. Wanting to avoid a war with Germany, Britain and France were proponents of what became known as "appeasement."

6. Germany withdrew from the League of Nations in 1933, and Hitler's 1935 announcement of plans to rearm Germany met with no resistance.

7. Germany reoccupied the Rhineland in 1936, and later that year Hitler and Italy's Benito Mussolini joined forces in the Rome-Berlin Axis.

8. Germany and Japan signed the Anti-Comintern Pact, a precursor to the military alliance between Japan and the Axis that was formalized in 1940.

9. In 1938 Hitler annexed Austria, and within six months of the Munich Conference that same year, German forces had overrun Czechoslovakia.

10. Hitler and the Soviet Union signed the Non-aggression Pact in August 1939; just two days after Germany attacked Poland on September 1, Britain and France declared war on Germany.

C. America and the War

1. President Roosevelt, with the support of most Americans, sought to keep the United States neutral.

2. By mid-1940 Germany had overrun Western Europe, leaving Great Britain as the only power in Europe fighting Hitler.

3. In America the Committee to Defend America by Aiding the Allies led the interventionists, while the isolationists formed the America First Committee.

4. The National Defense Advisory Commission and the Council of National Defense were created in 1940.

5. Also in 1940, the United States traded destroyers to Britain for the right to build military bases on British possessions and instituted a peacetime draft registration and conscription.

6. After winning an unprecedented third term as president in 1940, Roosevelt concentrated on persuading the American people to increase aid to Britain.

7. Roosevelt connected the Lend-Lease Act and his "Four Freedoms": the freedom of speech and expression, freedom of worship, freedom from want, and freedom from fear.

8. The "lend-lease" was extended to the Soviet Union, which became part of the Allied coalition after it was invaded by Germany; this marked the unofficial entrance of the United States into the European war.

9. The United States and Britain's Atlantic Charter called for economic collaboration between the two countries and for guarantees of political stability after the end of the war.

10. When the Americans started supplying the Allies, Germany attacked American and Allied ships; still, Roosevelt hesitated to ask Congress for a declaration of war.

11. Japan was becoming more expansionist in its intentions and signed the Tri-Partite Act with Germany and Italy in 1940.

12. After Japan occupied part of French Indochina, Roosevelt retaliated with trade restrictions and embargos on aviation fuel and scrap metal.

13. When Japanese troops occupied the rest of Indochina, Roosevelt froze Japanese assets in the United States and instituted an embargo on trade with Japan, including oil shipments.

14. The United States knew that Japan was planning an attack, but did not know when or where; on December 7, 1941, Japanese bombers attacked Pearl Harbor.

15. On December 8, Congress voted to declare war on Japan; three days later Germany and Italy declared war on the United States, and the United States in turn declared war on those nations.

II. Organizing for Victory

A. Defense Mobilization

1. A dramatic expansion of power occurred at the presidential level when Congress passed the War Powers Act of December 18, 1941.

2. During the war, the federal budget expanded tenfold, and the national debt grew sixfold.

3. The Revenue Act of 1942 taxed not only the wealthy and corporations, but average citizens as well.

4. The number of civilians employed by the government increased almost fourfold; leadership of federal agencies was turned over to business executives, so-called "dollar-a-year men."

5. The War Production Board awarded defense contracts, evaluated military and civilian requests for scarce resources, and oversaw the conversion of industry to military production.

6. The WPB preferred to deal with major corporations; these very large businesses would later form the very core of the military-industrial complex of the postwar years.

7. Mobilization on such a gigantic scale gave a huge boost to the economy, but the new capitalist system relied heavily on the federal government's participation.

8. An expanded state presence was evident in the government's mobilization of a fighting force; by the end of World War II the armed forces of the United States numbered 15 million.

9. The military segregated African Americans and assigned them the most menial jobs; Mexican Americans and Native Americans were never officially segregated.

10. About 350,000 women served in agencies such as the Women's Army Corps and Women Appointed for Volunteer Emergency Service, although they were barred from combat.

B. Workers and the War Effort

1. The War Manpower Commission, along with images of Rosie the Riveter, sought to remedy the war-induced labor shortage by urging women into the workforce.

2. Suddenly the nation's factories were full of women, but despite their new opportunities, they still faced much discrimination on the job.

3. Women's participation in the labor force dropped temporarily when the war ended, but it rebounded steadily for the rest of the 1940s.

4. The National War Labor Board established wages, hours, and working conditions and had the authority to seize plants that did not comply.

5. Although incomes were much higher for workers during the war, they felt cheated as they watched corporate profits soar in relation to wages.

6. John L. Lewis led the United Mine Workers on a strike; Congress overrode Roosevelt's veto of the Smith-Connally Labor Act, and strikes were prohibited entirely in defense industries.

7. African Americans pointed out parallels between anti-Semitism in Germany and racial discrimination in America; they pledged themselves to a "Double V" campaign.

8. In response to the threat of a black "March on Washington," Roosevelt issued Executive Order 8802 and established the Fair Employment Practices Commission.

9. The League of United Latin American Citizens built on their communities' patriotic contributions to the defense industry and the armed services to challenge discrimination and exclusion.

10. African American groups flourished; the NAACP grew ninefold by 1945 and the Congress of Racial Equality became known nationwide for its demonstrations and sit-ins.

C. Politics in Wartime

1. Roosevelt began to drop New Deal programs once mobilization began to bring full employment.

2. Later into the war, Roosevelt called for a second bill of rights, yet his commitment to it remained largely rhetorical since it received was no congressional support.

3. The Servicemen's Readjustment Act (1944), known as the GI Bill, provided education, job training, medical care, pensions, and mortgage loans for those who had served during the war.

4. Roosevelt's call for social legislation was part of a plan to woo Democratic voters; the 1942 elections saw Republicans gain seats in both houses and increase their share of governorships.

5. Seeking a fourth term because of the war, Roosevelt teamed with Harry S. Truman to run against Governor Thomas E. Dewey of New York.

6. Roosevelt received only 53.5 percent of the popular vote; the party's margin of victory came from the cities, and a significant segment of this urban support came from organized labor.

III. Life on the Home Front

A. Civilian War Efforts

1. The Office of War Information strove to disseminate information and promote patriotism; the OWI urged advertising agencies to link their clients' products to the "four freedoms."

2. Many movies had patriotic themes or demonstrated the heroism or patriotism of ordinary citizens; others warned of the dangers of fascism at home and abroad.

3. Federal defense spending had solved the depression: unemployment had disappeared, and per capita income had risen from $691 in 1939 to $1,515 in 1945.

4. The Office of Price Administration subjected to rationing or regulation almost everything Americans ate, wore, or used during the war.

5. The war affected where people lived; families followed service members to training bases or points of debarkation, and the lure of high-paying defense jobs encouraged others to move.

6. As a center of defense production, California was affected by the wartime migration more than any other state, experiencing a 53 percent growth in population.

7. In many towns with defense industries, housing was scarce and public transportation inadequate; conflicts arose between old-timers and newcomers.

8. Latchkey kids became the norm, and juvenile delinquency seemed to be reaching epidemic proportions.

9. As more than a million African Americans migrated to defense centers in California, Illinois, Michigan, Ohio, and Pennsylvania, racial conflicts arose over jobs and housing.

10. Many young people wore "zoot suits" as a symbol of alienation and self-assertion, but to adults and Anglos, the "zoot suit" symbolized wartime juvenile delinquency.

11. German Americans and Italian Americans usually did not experience intense prejudice, and leftists and communists faced little repression after the Soviet Union became an ally.

B. Japanese Internment

1. In 1942 Roosevelt approved a War Department plan to intern Japanese Americans in relocation camps for the rest of the war.

2. The War Relocation Authority rounded up Japanese Americans and sent them to internment camps in California, Arizona, Utah, Colorado, Wyoming, Idaho, and Arkansas.

3. The Japanese Americans who made up one-third of the population of Hawaii were not interred; the Hawaiian economy could not function without them.

4. Furloughs for seasonal workers, attendance at a college, and enlistment in the armed services were some routes out of the internment camps.

5. In Hirabavashi v. United States and Korematsu v. United States the Supreme Court upheld the constitutionality of internment as a legitimate exercise of power during wartime.

IV. Fighting and Winning the War

A. Wartime Aims and Strategies

1. In November 1943 Roosevelt and Winston Churchill agreed to open a second front in return for Joseph Stalin's promise to fight against Japan when the war in Europe ended.

2. The delay in creating the second front meant that the Soviet Union bore the brunt of the land battle against Germany; Stalin's mistrust and bitterness of the United States and Great Britain carried over into the cold war.

3. During the first six months of the war, the Allies suffered severe defeats on land and sea both in Europe and Asia.

4. The turning point in the war came when the Soviets halted the German advance in the Battle of Stalingrad; by 1944 Stalin's forces had driven the Germans out of the Soviet Union.

5. In North Africa Allied troops, under the leadership of General Dwight D. Eisenhower and General George S. Patton, defeated Germany's Afrika Korps led by General Erwin Rommel.

6. The Allied command moved to attack the Axis through Sicily and the Italian peninsula; in July 1943 Mussolini's fascist regime fell, and Italy's new government joined the Allies.

7. The invasion of France came on D-Day, June 6, 1944; under General Eisenhower's command, more than 1.5 million American, British, and Canadian troops crossed the English Channel.

8. In August 1944 Allied troops helped to liberate Paris; by September they had driven the Germans out of most of France and Belgium.

9. In December 1944, after ten days of fighting, the Allies pushed the Germans back across the Rhine River in the Battle of the Bulge, the final German offensive.

10. As American, British, and Soviet troops advanced toward Berlin, Hitler committed suicide in his bunker on April 30; Germany surrendered on May 8, 1945, now known as V-E Day.

11. As Allied troops advanced into Germany, they came upon the extermination camps where 6 million Jews, along with 6 million other people, were put to death.

12. The Roosevelt administration had information about the camps as early as 1942, but so few Jews escaped the Holocaust because the United States and the rest of the world would not take the Jews in.

13. The War Refugee Board established in 1944 eventually helped save about 200,000 Jews who were placed in refugee camps in countries such as Morocco and Switzerland.

14. After Pearl Harbor, Japan continued its conquests in the Far East and began to threaten Australia and India.

15. In May 1942, in the Battle of the Coral Sea, American naval forces halted the offensive against Australia, and in June Americans inflicted crucial damage on the Japanese fleet at Midway.

16. Over the next eighteen months, General Doug-las MacArthur and Admiral Chester W. Nimitz led the offensive in the Pacific, advancing from one island to the next.

17. The reconquest of the Philippines began with a victory in the Battle of Leyte Gulf; by early 1945, triumph over Japan was in sight, with American victories at Iwo Jima and Okinawa.

18. The use of kamikaze missions, combined with the Japanese refusal to surrender, suggested to military strategists that Japan would continue to fight despite overwhelming losses.

B. Planning the Postwar World

1. When Roosevelt, Churchill, and Stalin met at Yalta in February 1945, victory in Europe and the Pacific was in sight, but no agreement had been reached on the peace to come.

2. One source of conflict was Stalin's desire for a band of Soviet-controlled satellite states to protect the Soviet Union's western border.

3. Roosevelt and Churchill agreed in principle on the idea of a Soviet sphere of influence in Eastern Europe but deliberately left its dimensions vague.

4. Germany was to be divided into four zones to be controlled by the United States, Great Britain, France, and the Soviet Union; Berlin would be partitioned among the four.

5. The Security Council of the United Nations would include the five major Allied powers, plus six other nations participating on a rotating basis.

6. The international organization of the United Nations was to convene in San Francisco on April 25, 1945; Roosevelt suffered a cerebral hemorrhage and died on April 12, 1945.

7. When Harry Truman took over the presidency, he learned of the top-secret Manhattan Project, charged with developing the atomic bomb.

8. Truman ordered the dropping of atomic bombs on the Japanese cities of Hiroshima, on August 6, and Nagasaki, on August 9.

9. Japan offered to surrender on August 10 and signed a formal treaty of surrender on September 2, 1945.

10. After the war, issues such as the fates of Poland and Germany demanded action; the resulting compromises tended to promote spheres of influence on the new basis of international power.

11. Once the common enemies had been defeated, wartime alliances split apart; one of the greatest legacies of World War II was the cold war that followed.

Chapter Annotated Outline

I. The Early Cold War

A. Descent into Cold War, 1945-1946

1. After Yalta the Soviets made no move to hold the promised elections and rebuffed western attempts to reorganize Soviet-installed governments in its "sphere of influence."

2. President Harry Truman took a hard line against Soviet expansion at the Potsdam Conference; he was bolstered by the fact that the United States had the atom bomb and the Soviets did not.

3. At Potsdam the Allies agreed to disarm Germany, dismantle its military production facilities, and permit the occupying powers to extract reparations.

4. The failure of the Baruch Plan signaled the beginning of a frenzied nuclear arms race between the two superpowers, the United States and the Soviet Union.

B. A Policy of Containment

1. As tensions mounted, the United States increasingly perceived Soviet expansionism as a threat to its own interests, and a new policy of containment began to take shape.

2. The Truman Doctrine requested large-scale military and economic assistance to protect Greece and Turkey from communism, which, in effect, protected the entire Middle East.

3. The appropriation reversed the postwar trend toward sharp cuts in foreign spending and marked a new level of commitment to the emerging cold war.

4. The Marshall Plan bolstered devastated European countries and helped protect them from communism; the plan required that foreign-aid dollars be spent on U.S. goods and services.

5. Truman's plan for economic aid to European economies met with opposition in Congress, until a Communist coup occurred in Czechoslovakia in February 1948.

6. Over the next four years, the United States contributed to a highly successful recovery effort; Western European economies revived, opening new opportunities for international trade.

7. Truman countered a Soviet blockade of West Berlin with airlifts of food and fuel; the blockade, lifted in May 1949, made West Berlin a symbol of resistance to communism.

8. In April 1949, under the North Atlantic Treaty Organization pact, twelve nations agreed that an armed attack against one of them would be considered an attack against all of them.

9. NATO agreed to the creation of the Federal Republic of Germany (West Germany) in May 1949; in October, the Soviets created the German Democratic Republic (East Germany).

10. The Soviets organized the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance in 1949 and the Warsaw Pact in 1955.

11. In September 1949 American military intelligence had proof that the Soviets had detonated an atomic bomb; this revelation called for a major reassessment of American foreign policy.

12. The National Security Council gave a report, known as NSC-68, that recommended the development of a hydrogen bomb and called for increased taxes to finance defense building.

13. The beginning of the Korean War helped to transform the NSC-68 recommendations into reality.

C. Containment in Asia

1. American policy in Asia was based as much on Asia's importance to the world economy, as on the desire to contain communism.

2. After dismantling Japan's military forces and weaponry, American occupation forces began the job of transforming the country into a bulwark of Asian capitalism.

3. In China a civil war had been raging since the 1930s between communist forces, led by Mao Zedong and Zhou Enlai, and conservative Nationalist forces, under Jiang Jieshi.

4. The Truman administration attempted for a time to help the Nationalists; the People's Republic of China was formally established under Mao, and Jiang's forces fled to Taiwan.

5. The "China lobby" led the United States to refuse to recognize "Red China"; instead the United States recognized the exiled Nationalist government and blocked China's admission to the U.N.

6. At the end of World War II, both the Soviets and the United States had troops in Korea; as a result, Korea was divided at the 38th parallel into competing spheres of influence.

7. The Soviets supported a communist government, led by Kim Il Sung, in North Korea; and the United States backed a Korean nationalist, Syngman Rhee, in South Korea.

8. On June 25, 1950, North Koreans provoked fighting at the 38th parallel; Truman asked the United Nations Security Council to authorize a "police action" against the invaders.

9. The Security Council voted to send a "peacekeeping" force to Korea, and Truman ordered U.S. troops to go there; General Douglas MacArthur headed the U.N. forces.

10. Given domestic opinions and a stalemate in Korea, Truman and his advisors decided to work toward a negotiated peace; they did not want large numbers of U.S. troops tied down in Asia.

11. MacArthur, who believed that the United States's future lay in Asia and not in Europe, was relieved of his command in Korea and Japan; the decision to relieve him was not a popular one at home.

12. Two years after truce talks began, an armistice was signed in July 1953; Korea was divided near the original border at the 38th parallel, with a demilitarized zone between the countries.

13. Calling the Korean War a "police action" rather than a war, Truman had committed troops to Korea without congressional approval, setting a precedent for other undeclared wars.

II. Harry Truman and the Cold War at Home

A. Postwar Domestic Challenges

1. Government spending dropped after the war, but consumer spending increased and unemployment did not soar back up with the shift back to civilian production.

2. When Truman disbanded the Office of Price Administration and lifted price controls in 1946, prices soared, producing an annual inflation rate of 18.2 percent.

3. Inflation prompted workers to demand higher wages; workers mounted crippling strikes in the automobile, steel, and coal industries.

4. Truman ended a strike by the United Mine Workers and one by railroad workers by placing the mines and railroads under federal control; Democrats in organized labor were outraged.

5. In 1947 the Republican-controlled Congress passed the Taft-Hartley Act, a rollback of several provisions of the 1935 National Labor Relations Act.

6. Truman's veto of the Taft-Hartley Act countered some workers' hostility to his earlier antistrike activity and kept labor in the Democratic fold.

7. In the election of 1948, the Republicans again nominated Thomas E. Dewey for president and nominated Earl Warren for vice president.

8. Democratic left and right wings split off: the Progressive Party nominated Henry A. Wallace for president; the States' Rights Party (Dixiecrats) nominated Strom Thurmond.

9. Truman won the election and the Democrats regained control of both houses of Congress.

B. Fair Deal Liberalism

1. The Fair Deal was an extension of the New Deal's liberalism, but it gave attention to civil rights, reflecting the growing importance of African Americans to the Democratic coalition.

2. Congress adopted only parts of Truman's twenty-one point plan: a higher minimum wage, an extension of and increase in Social Security, and the National Housing Act of 1949.

3. The activities of certain interest groups helped to block support for the Fair Deal's plan for enlarged federal responsibility for economic and social welfare.

4. Truman offered support for civil rights not only because he wanted to solidify the Democrats' hold on African American voters, but also because he was concerned about America's image abroad.

5. Among Truman's attempts at supporting civil rights, he appointed the National Civil Rights Commission in 1946, and he signed an executive order to desegregate the army.

6. A filibuster by southern conservatives blocked Truman's attempts at passing proposed legislation intended to protect African Americans from discrimination and harassment.

7. The beginning of the Korean War in 1950 diverted national attention and federal funds away from domestic affairs and toward fighting the cold war.

C. The Great Fear

1. As American relations with the Soviet Union deteriorated, a fear of communism at home fueled a widespread campaign of domestic repression, often called "McCarthyism."

2. In 1938 a group of conservatives had launched the House Un-American Activities Committee to investigate communist influence in labor unions and New Deal agencies.

3. In 1947 HUAC helped launch the "Great Fear" by holding widely publicized hearings on alleged communist activity in the film industry.

4. In March 1947 Truman initiated an investigation into the loyalty of federal employees; other institutions undertook their own antisubversive campaigns.

5. Communist members of the labor movement were expelled, as were Communist members of civil rights organizations such as the NAACP and the National Urban League.

6. The conviction of Alger Hiss, a State Department official, fueled the paranoia about a Communist conspiracy and contributed to the rise of Senator Joseph McCarthy.

7. McCarthy's accusations of subversion in the government were meant to embarrass the Democrats; critics who disagreed with him were charged with being "soft" on communism.

8. McCarthy failed to identify a single Communist in government, but cases like Hiss's and the 1951 espionage trial of Julius and Ethel Rosenberg fueled McCarthy's allegations.

9. In 1954 McCarthy's support declined when his smear tactics were brought before the public in televised hearings as he investigated subversion in the U.S. Army.

III. "Modern Republicanism"

A. "I Like Ike"

1. President Dwight D. Eisenhower set the tone for "modern Republicanism," an updated party philosophy that emphasized a slowdown, rather than a dismantling, of federal responsibilities.

2. Eisenhower's status as a war hero was his greatest political asset; during World War II he was the Supreme Commander of Allied Forces in Europe.

3. Democrats had hoped to make "Ike" their candidate for president in 1948 and 1952; Eisenhower wanted the office, but as a Republican.

4. Eisenhower secured the Republican nomination and asked Senator Richard M. Nixon to be his running mate.

5. The Democrats chose Governor Adlai E. Stevenson of Illinois for president and Senator John A. Sparkman for vice president.

6. Eisenhower was popular with his "I Like Ike" slogan, his K1 C2 (Korea, Communism, Corruption) formula, and his campaign pledge to go to Korea to end the stalemate.

7. Eisenhower considered dropping Nixon from the ticket because of a secret "slush fund"; Nixon's "Checkers speech" showed how television could be used to a politician's advantage.

8. As president, Eisenhower hoped to decrease the need for federal intervention in social and economic issues yet avoid conservative demands for a complete rollback of the New Deal.

9. The National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) was founded in 1958, the year after the Soviets launched Sputnik, the first satellite.

10. To bolster U.S. technological expertise, Eisenhower persuaded Congress to appropriate funds for college scholarships and for research and development.

11. The creation of the Department of Health, Education, and Welfare in 1953 consolidated government control of social welfare programs.

12. The Highway Act of 1956 was an enormous public works program that surpassed anything undertaken during the New Deal.

B. Emergence of Civil Rights as a National Issue

1. Legal segregation of the races still governed southern society in the early 1950s; whites and blacks did not share the same room in restaurants, or even the same water fountains.

2. Beginning in World War II, the NAACP had redoubled its efforts to combat segregation in housing, transportation, and other areas.

3. In Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka (1954) the Supreme Court overturned the longstanding "separate but equal" doctrine of Plessy v. Ferguson (1896).

4. Over the next several years, the Supreme Court used the Brown case to overturn segregation in public recreation areas, transportation, and housing.

5. In the Southern Manifesto of 1956, some members of Congress denounced the Brown decision as an abuse of judicial power and encouraged their constituents to defy the ruling.

6. In response to the Little Rock school-integration incident, Eisenhower became the first president since Reconstruction to use federal troops to enforce the civil rights of blacks.

7. Rosa Parks's refusal to give up her bus seat to a white person prompted the Montgomery bus boycott; the Supreme Court declared bus segregation unconstitutional in 1956.

8. Reverend Martin Luther King Jr. was catapulted into national prominence after the bus boycott; in 1957 he and other black clergy founded the Southern Christian Leadership Conference in Atlanta.

9. While the SCLC and the NAACP achieved only limited victories in the 1950s, they laid the organizational groundwork for the dynamic civil rights movement of the 1960s.

C. The "New Look" of Foreign Policy

1. After the war in Korea was settled, Eisenhower turned his attention to Europe; Stalin died in March 1953, and after a struggle, Nikita S. Khrushchev emerged as his successor.

2. Soviet repression of the Hungarian revolt showed that American policymakers had few options for rolling back Soviet power in Europe, short of going to war with the USSR.

3. Under the "New Look" defense policy, the United States economized by developing a massive nuclear arsenal as an alternative to more expensive conventional forces.

4. The U.S. Strategic Air Command had a Distant Early Warning line of radar stations installed in Alaska and Canada.

5. By 1958 both the United States and the Soviets had intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs), and they were both carrying out atmospheric testing of the hydrogen bomb.

6. The arms race debilitated the social welfare programs of both nations by funneling resources into soon-to-be-obsolete weapons.

7. The Southeast Asia Treaty Organization (SEATO) was created to complement the NATO alliance in Europe.

8. U.S. policymakers tended to support stable governments, as long as they were not communist; some American allies were governed by dictatorships or repressive right-wing regimes.

9. The Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) moved beyond intelligence gathering into active, albeit covert, involvement in the internal affairs of foreign countries.

10. In 1953 the CIA helped overthrow Iran's nationalist premier after he seized control of British oil properties, and in 1954 the CIA helped support a coup in Guatemala.

D. The Cold War in the Middle East

1. The American policy of containment soon extended to new nations emerging in the Third World.

2. The United States often failed to recognize that indigenous or nationalist movements in emerging nations had their own goals and were not necessarily under the control of Communists.

3. Truman quickly recognized the new nation of Israel after it was established in 1948, and in doing so he alienated the Arabs but won support from Jewish Americans in the 1948 election.

4. In early 1957, after the Suez Canal crisis, the Eisenhower Doctrine stated that American forces would assist any nation in the Middle East requiring aid against communism.

5. Eisenhower invoked the doctrine when he sent troops to aid King Hussein of Jordan, and when he sent troops to back a pro-United States government in Lebanon.

6. U.S. attention given to developments in the Middle East in the 1950s reflected a growing desire for access to steady supplies of oil, a desire that increasingly affected foreign policy.

E. Domestic Impact of the Cold war

1. After the 1950s federal investigators documented a host of illnesses, deaths, and birth defects among families of veterans who had worked on weapons tests and among "downwinders."

2. According to a 1993 Department of Energy report, many subjects used in the Atomic Energy Commission's experiments in the 1940s and 1950s did not know they were being irradiated.

3. Bomb shelters and civil defense drills were daily reminders of the threat of nuclear war; Eisenhower himself had second thoughts about the Mutual Assured Destruction policy.

4. Eisenhower tried to negotiate an arms limitation agreement with the Soviet Union, but in 1960 progress was cut short when an American spy plane was shot down over Soviet territory.

5. In his final address in 1961, Eisenhower warned against the growing power of what he termed the "military-industrial complex," which by then employed 3.5 million Americans.

Chapter 28

Chapter Annotated Outline

I. The Affluent Society

A. The Economic Record

1. By the end of 1945, U.S. corporations and banking institutions so dominated the world economy that the period has been called the Pax Americana (American Peace.)

2. The postwar years witnessed the heyday of modern American capitalism, characterized by the consolidation of economic and financial resources by oligopolies.

3. Conglomerates assured themselves protection from instability in any one market by diversifying, thereby making themselves more effective international competitors.

4. The weakness of the competition abroad enabled American businesses to enter foreign regions when domestic markets were saturated or experiencing recessions.

5. Backed by U.S. funds, the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (World Bank) and the International Monetary Fund (IMF) helped to develop and stabilize the world economy.

6. U.S. economic supremacy abroad helped to boost the domestic economy, creating millions of new jobs; the fastest growing sector was white-collar jobs.

7. The AFL-CIO, created by the 1955 merger of the Congress of Industrial Organizations and the American Federation of Labor, represented over 90 percent of America's union members.

8. In exchange for fewer strikes, corporate managers often cooperated with unions, agreeing to contracts that gave workers secure, predictable, and steadily rising incomes.

9. Consumer spending soared and inflation was low; yet the boon was marred by periodic bouts of recession and unemployment that particularly hurt low-income and nonwhite workers.

B. The Suburban Explosion

1. Americans began leaving older cities in the North and Midwest for newer ones in the South and West; there was also a major shift to the suburbs.

2. Arthur Levitt applied mass-production techniques to home construction; other developers followed suit in subdivisions all over the country, hastening the exodus from farms and cities.

3. New suburban homes, as well as the Federal Housing Administration and Veterans Administration loans to mortgage them with, were reserved mostly for whites.

4. Although Shelley v. Kraemer (1948) ruled that restrictive covenants were illegal, the practice continued until the civil rights laws of the 1960s banned private discrimination.

5. New growth patterns were most striking in the South and West, where inexpensive land, unorganized labor, low taxes, and warm climates beckoned; California grew most rapidly.

6. Automobiles were essential to the growth of suburbs and to the development of the "Sun Belt" states of the South and West; the 1950s guzzlers became symbols of status and success.

7. Highways were funded by federal government programs such as the National Interstate and Defense Highway Act of 1956; air pollution and traffic jams soon became problems in cities.

8. As Americans began driving to suburban shopping malls and supermarkets, downtown retail economy dried up, helping to precipitate the decay of the central cities.

II. American Life during the Baby Boom

A. Consumer Culture

1. The new prosperity of the 1950s was aided by a dramatic increase in consumer credit, which enabled families to stretch their incomes.

2. Aggressive advertising by corporations contributed to the massive increase in consumer spending.

3. Consumers had more free time in which to spend their money; millions took to the interstate highways, spurring dramatic growth in motel chains, restaurants, and fast-food eateries.

4. Television supplanted radio as the chief diffuser of popular culture; it portrayed American families as white, middle-class suburbanites, and nonwhite characters were usually servants.

5. The Federal Communications Commissioner called television "a vast wasteland"; however, its images of postwar family life and society fit with the expectations of many Americans.

B. The Search for Security: Religion and the Family

1. After the depression, Americans yearned for security and a reaffirmation of traditional values; this yearning manifested itself in a renewed national emphasis on religion.

2. In 1954 the phrase "under God" was inserted into the Pledge of Allegiance, and in 1956 Congress added "In God We Trust" to all U.S. coins.

3. Norman Vincent Peale's The Power of Positive Thinking embodied the trend toward the therapeutic use of religion to assist Americans in coping with the stresses of modern life.

4. Evangelical religion experienced a resurgence with the popular Reverend Billy Graham.

5. Postwar family demographics changed from previous years: marriages were remarkably stable, there was a drop in the average age at marriage, and the birth rate shot up.

6. The baby boom prompted a major expansion in the nation's education system, and babies' consumer needs helped fuel the economy.

7. Coupled with national defense expenditures, family spending on consumer goods fueled unparalleled prosperity and economic growth in the 1950s and 1960s.

C. Contradictions in Women's Lives

1. As parents of baby boomers, men were expected to conform to a masculine ideal that emphasized their role as responsible breadwinners.

2. Women were advised that their proper place was in the home; endorsing the "feminine mystique," psychologists pronounced motherhood the only "normal" female sex role.

3. Not all women chose to be housewives; an increase in the overall number of working women coincided with an increase in the number of older, married, middle-class working women.

4. Working women still bore full responsibility for child care and household management, allowing families and society to avoid facing the implications of women's new roles.

D. Cultural Dissenters

1. The emergence of a mass youth culture had its roots in the democratization of education, the growth of peer pressure, and the increasing purchasing power of teenagers.

2. America's youth were eager to escape suburban conformity, and they became a distinct new market that advertisers eagerly exploited.

3. The rock 'n' roll that teens were attracted to in the 1950s was seen by white adults as an invitation to race-mixing, sexual promiscuity, and juvenile delinquency.

4. In major cities gay men and women founded gay rights organizations like the Mattachine Society and the Daughters of Bilitis, but many gays were still perceived as a threat to mainstream sexual and cultural norms and, therefore, remained closeted.

5. Postwar artists, musicians, and writers expressed their alienation from mainstream society through intensely personal, introspective art forms; abstract expressionism captured the chaotic atmosphere of the nuclear age.

6. A similar trend developed in jazz, as black musicians originated a hard-driving improvisational style known as "bebop."

7. The rebellion of the Beats, although strictly cultural, inspired a new generation of rebels in the 1960s who championed both political and cultural change.

III. The Other America

A. Urban Migration

1. The War Brides Act, the Displaced Persons Act, the McCarran-Walter Act, and the repeal of the Chinese Exclusion Act all helped create an influx of immigrants into American cities.

2. The federal government welcomed Mexican labor under its bracero program but deported those who stayed illegally; 4 million Mexicans were deported during "Operation Wetback."

3. Residents of Puerto Rico had been American citizens since 1917, so they were not subject to immigration laws; they became America's first group to immigrate by air.

4. Cuban refugees were the third largest group of Spanish-speaking immigrants; the Cuban refugee community turned Miami into a cosmopolitan, bilingual city almost overnight.

5. Internal migration from rural areas brought large numbers of people to the cities, especially African Americans, after the introduction of innovations like the mechanical cotton-picker, which reduced southern demand for labor.

6. By 1960 about half of the nation's black population was living outside the South, compared with only 23 percent before World War II.

7. After the 1953 "Termination" programs, many Indians settled together in poor urban neighborhoods alongside other nonwhite groups; many found it difficult to adjust to an urban environment and culture.

B. The Urban Crisis

1. Between 1950 and 1960, the nation's twelve largest cities lost 3.6 million whites and gained 4.5 million nonwhites.

2. As affluent whites left the cities, urban tax revenues shrank, leading to the decay of services and infrastructure; housing continued to be a crucial problem.

3. Urban renewal demolished about 400,000 buildings and displaced 1.4 million people between 1949 and 1967.

4. Postwar urban areas increasingly became places of last resort for America's poor; once there, they faced unemployment, racial hostilities, and institutional barriers to mobility.

5. Two separate Americas emerged: a largely white society in suburbs and an inner city populated by blacks, Latinos, and other disadvantaged groups.

IV. John F. Kennedy and the Politics of Expectation

A. The New Politics

1. Democrat John F. Kennedy, with Lyndon B. Johnson as his running mate, won the 1960 presidential election over Republican Richard M. Nixon.

2. Kennedy called for civil rights legislation, health care for the elderly, aid to education, urban renewal, expanded military and space programs, and containment of communism abroad.

3. Kennedy practiced what became known as the "new politics," an approach that emphasized youthful charisma, style, and personality more than issues and platforms.

4. Television was a powerful medium for political life; voters who listened to the 1960 presidential debates on the radio concluded that Nixon had won, and those who watched it on TV felt that Kennedy had won.

5. Kennedy, a Catholic, successfully appealed to the diverse elements of the Democratic coalition; Johnson brought in the votes of southern white Democrats.

B. Activism Abroad and at Home

1. A resolute cold warrior, Kennedy proposed a new policy of flexible response measures designed to deter direct attacks by the Soviet Union; it greatly expanded the military-industrial complex.

2. Kennedy adopted a new military doctrine of counterinsurgency; soon the Green Berets of the U.S. Army's Special Forces were being trained to repel guerrilla warfare.

3. The Peace Corps, the Agency for International Development, and the Alliance for Progress provided food and other aid to Third World countries, bringing them into the American orbit and away from communist influence.

4. Fidel Castro overthrew Cuban dictator Fulgencio Batista in 1959; Cuban relations with Washington deteriorated after Castro nationalized American-owned banks and industries and the United States declared an embargo on Cuban exports.

5. Isolated by the United States, Cuba turned to the Soviet Union for economic and military support.

6. In early 1961 Kennedy attempted to foment an anti-Castro uprising; the CIA-trained invaders were crushed by Castro's troops after landing at Cuba's Bay of Pigs on April 17.

7. U.S.-Soviet relations further deteriorated when the Soviets built the Berlin Wall to stop the exodus of East Germans; the Berlin Wall remained a symbol of the cold war until 1989.

8. In October 1962 American reconnaissance planes flying over Cuba photographed Soviet-built bases for intermediate-range ballistic missiles.

9. In a televised address, Kennedy confronted the Soviet Union and announced that the United States would impose a "quarantine on all offensive military equipment" intended for Cuba.

10. After a week of tense negotiations, both Kennedy and Khrushchev made concessions: the United States would not invade Cuba, and the Soviets would dismantle the missile bases.

11. In 1963 the United States, Great Britain, and the Soviet Union agreed to stop testing nuclear weapons in the atmosphere, in space, and under water; underground testing would continue.

12. A new Washington-Moscow telecommunications "hot line" was established so that leaders could contact each other quickly during potential crises.

13. Kennedy could not mobilize public or congressional support for his New Frontier agenda; also he was not as passionate about domestic reform as he was about foreign policy.

14. Funding for the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) and its Mercury program did win support; on May 5, 1961, Alan Shepard became the first American in space.

15. After Kennedy's assassination, the Tax Reduction Act (the Kennedy-Johnson tax cut, 1964) marked a milestone in the use of fiscal policy to encourage economic growth.

C. JFK and Civil Rights

1. One of the gravest failures of the Kennedy administration was its reluctance to act on civil rights.

2. After the Woolworth's sit-in, the Southern Christian Leadership Conference helped orga-nize the Student Non-Violent Coordinating Committee to facilitate sit-ins by blacks demanding an end to segregation.

3. The Congress of Racial Equality organized freedom rides on bus lines in the South to call attention to segregation on public transportation; the activists were attacked by white mobs.

4. Most southern communities quietly acceded to the Interstate Commerce Commission's prohibition of segregated interstate vehicles and facilities.

5. Television cameras captured the severe mistreatment of civil rights activists during a protest in Birmingham, Alabama; American households viewed the spectacle on the evening news.

6. In what black leaders hailed as the "Second Emancipation Proclamation," Kennedy promised major legislation banning discrimination in public accommodations.

7. Medgar Evers, the president of the Mississippi chapter of the NAACP, was shot and killed the night of Kennedy's televised speech.

8. A massive civil rights march on Washington in 1963 culminated in a memorable speech by Martin Luther King Jr.; King won the Nobel Peace Prize in 1964 for his leadership.

9. Southern senators blocked the civil rights legislation, and there was an outbreak of violence by white extremists; in Birmingham, four black Sunday school students were killed.

D. The Kennedy Assassination

1. On November 22, 1963, in Dallas, Texas, President Kennedy was assassinated by Lee Harvey Oswald; Lyndon Johnson was sworn in as president.

2. Kennedy's youthful image, the trauma of his assassination, and the sense that Americans had been robbed of a promising leader contributed to a powerful mystique that continues today.

V. Lyndon B. Johnson and the Great Society

A. The Momentum for Civil Rights

1. Johnson won the 1964 election in a landslide and used his energy and genius for compromise to bring to fruition many of Kennedy's stalled programs, as well as many of his own.

2. The Civil Rights Act passed in June 1964; Title VII outlawed discrimination in employment on the basis of race, religion, national origin, or sex.

3. The Civil Rights Act forced desegregation of public facilities throughout the South, yet obstacles to black voting remained.

4. A civil rights campaign known as Freedom Summer established freedom schools, conducted a voter registration drive, and organized the Mississippi Freedom Democratic Party.

5. The reaction of white southerners to Freedom Summer was swift and violent; fifteen civil rights workers were murdered, and only 1,200 black voters were registered.

6. Civil rights activists near Selma, Alabama, were seen on the news being attacked by white authorities; Johnson redoubled his efforts to get pending voting-rights legislation passed.

7. The Voting Rights Act of 1965 suspended the literacy tests and other measures most southern states used to prevent blacks from registering to vote.

8. The Twenty-fourth Amendment's outlawing of the federal poll tax, combined with the Voting Rights Act, allowed millions of blacks to register to vote for the first time.

B. Enacting the Liberal Agenda

1. When Johnson beat out Republican senator Barry Goldwater for the presidency in 1964, he achieved one of the largest margins in history: 61.1 percent of the popular vote.

2. Johnson used this mandate not only to promote the civil rights agenda, but also to bring to fruition what he called "The Great Society."

3. The Elementary and Secondary Education Act helped benefit impoverished children; the Higher Education Act provided the first federal scholarships for college students.

4. Federal health insurance legislation was enacted; the result was Medicare for the elderly and Medicaid for the poor.

5. The National Endowment for the Arts and the National Endowment for the Humanities supported artists and historians in their efforts to understand and interpret the nation's cultural and historical heritage.

6. At the insistence of his wife, Lady Bird, the president promoted the Highway Beautification Act of 1965.

7. Great Society programs emphasized quality of life: the problems of "vanishing beauty," "increasing ugliness," and shrinking open space, and the effects of pollution, noise, and blight.

8. Liberal Democrats brought about significant changes in immigration policy with the passage of the Immigration Act of 1965, which abandoned the quota system of the 1920s.

9. The "War on Poverty" expanded long-established social insurance programs, welfare programs (like Aid to Families with Dependent Children and Food Stamps), and public works programs.

10. The Office of Economic Opportunity created programs like Head Start, the Job Corps, Upward Bound, Volunteers in Service to America, and the Community Action Program.

11. The Johnson administration put issues of poverty, justice, and access at the center of national political life, and it expanded the federal government's role in protecting citizens' welfare.

12. The political necessity of bowing to pressure from various interest groups hampered Great Society programs; another problem was limited funding.

13. Democratic support for further governmental activism was hindered by a growing conservative backlash against the expansion of civil rights and social welfare programs.

14. After 1965 the Vietnam War siphoned funding away from domestic programs; in 1966 the government spent $22 billion on the war and only $1.2 billion on the War on Poverty.

Chapter 29 Annotated Outline

I. Into the Quagmire, 1945-1968

A. America in Vietnam: From Truman to Kennedy

1. In 1950 Soviet and Chinese leaders recognized Ho Chi Minh's republic in Vietnam; the United States and Great Britain recognized the French-installed government of Bao Dai.

2. Truman and Eisenhower provided military support to the French in Vietnam; Eisenhower argued that aid was necessary to prevent noncommunist governments from collapsing in a domino effect.

3. The 1954 Geneva Accords partitioned Vietnam temporarily at the seventeenth parallel and committed France to withdraw its forces from the area north of that line.

4. To prevent a communist victory in Vietnam's election, Eisenhower saw to it that a pro-American government took power in South Vietnam under the leadership of Ngo Dinh Diem.

5. Eisenhower and subsequent U.S. presidents viewed Vietnam as a part of the cold war struggle to contain the communist threat to the free world; America replaced France as the dominant foreign power in the region.

6. President Kennedy saw Vietnam as ideal ground for the counterinsurgency techniques that formed the centerpiece of his military policy.

7. North Vietnam organized opponents in South Vietnam into the National Liberation Front (NLF); Kennedy increased the number of American military advisors but sent no troops.

8. American aid did little good in South Vietnam, and the NLF's guerrilla forces (Viet Cong) made considerable headway against Diem's regime.

9. Anti-Diem sentiment flourished among Buddhists who charged the government with religious persecution; as opposition to Diem deepened, Kennedy decided the leader would have to be removed.

10. Diem was driven from office and assassinated by South Vietnamese officers; America's role in the coup reinforced links between the United States and the new regime in South Vietnam.

B. Escalation: The Johnson Years

1. After Kennedy's assassination, top U.S. advisors argued that a full-scale deployment was needed to prevent the defeat of the South Vietnamese.

2. Johnson knew that he needed congressional support or a declaration of war to commit U.S. troops to an offensive strategy, so he used a deceptive method to secure the Tonkin resolution.

3. The Johnson administration moved toward the Americanization of the war with Operation Rolling Thunder, a protracted bombing campaign that used three times as many bombs as had fallen in World War II.

4. The flow of North Vietnamese troops and supplies continued to the south unabated as the communists quickly rebuilt roads and bridges, moved munitions underground, and built networks of tunnels and shelters.

5. A week after the launch of Operation Rolling Thunder, the United States sent its first ground troops into combat; by 1968 more than 536,000 American soldiers were stationed in Vietnam.

6. Vietnam's countryside was threatened with destruction; the massive bombardment plus a defoliation campaign seriously damaged agricultural production and, thus, the economy.

7. Hoping to win a war of attrition, the Johnson administration assumed American superiority in personnel and weaponry would ultimately triumph.

C. American Soldiers' Perspectives on the War

1. Approximately 2.8 million Americans served in Vietnam, at an average age of only nineteen; some were volunteers, including 7,000 women enlistees.

2. Until 1973 the draft stood as a concrete reminder of the government's impact on the lives of ordinary Americans.

3. Blacks were drafted and died roughly in the same proportion to their share of the draft-age population; black and white sons of the poor and the working class shouldered a disproportionate amount of the fighting.

4. Young men from more affluent backgrounds were more likely to avoid combat through student deferments, medical exemptions, and appointments to the National Guard.

5. Rarely were there large-scale battles, only skirmishes; rather than front lines and conquered territory, there were only daytime operations in the areas the Viet Cong controlled at night.

6. Racism was a fact of everyday life; many soldiers lumped the South Vietnamese and the Viet Cong together in the term "gook."

7. Fighting and surviving under such harsh conditions took its toll; cynicism and bitterness were common.

8. As Women's Army Corp members (WACs), nurses, and civilians serving with organizations such as the USO, women volunteers witnessed death and mutilation on a massive scale.

II. The Cold-War Consensus Unravels

A. Public Opinion on Vietnam

1. By the late 1960s, public opinion began to turn against the war in Vietnam; television had much to do with these attitudes.

2. Despite glowing reports on TV, by 1967 many administration officials privately reached a more pessimistic conclusion regarding the war.

3. The administration was accused of suffering from a "credibility gap"; 1966 televised hearings by the Senate Foreign Relations Committee raised further questions about U.S. policy.

4. Economic developments put Johnson and his advisors even more on the defensive; the costs of the war became evident as the growing federal deficit nudged the inflation rate upward.

5. Between 1963 and 1965, peace activists staged periodic protests, vigils, and petition-and letter-writing campaigns against U.S. involvement in the war.

6. Many Americans argued that the war was antithetical to American ideals; that American involvement would not help the Vietnamese; and that the goal of an independent, anticommunist South Vietnam was unattainable.

B. Student Activism and the Counterculture

1. The Students for a Democratic Society (SDS), disillusioned with the consumer culture and the gulf between the prosperous and the poor, also rejected cold war ideology and foreign policy.

2. The founders of SDS referred to themselves as the "New Left" to distinguish themselves from the "Old Left" of communists and socialists of the 1930s and 1940s.

3. At the University of California at Berkeley, the Free Speech Movement organized a sit-in in response to administrators' attempts to ban political activity on campus.

4. When Johnson escalated the war in 1965, University of Michigan students organized a teach-in, abandoning their classes and debating the aspects of the nation's involvement in the war.

5. The Selective Service abolished student deferment in 1966; in public demonstrations, opponents of the war burned their draft cards and closed down induction centers.

6. Much of the universities' research budget came from Defense Department contracts; students demanded that the Reserve Officer Training Corps be removed from college campuses.

7. In the late 1960s, student protestors joined the much larger antiwar movement of peace activists, housewives, religious leaders, and a few elected officials.

8. The Johnson administration had to face the reality of large-scale opposition with protests like "Stop the Draft Week" and the "siege on the Pentagon."

9. The "hippie" symbolized the new counterculture, a youthful movement that glorified liberation from traditional social structures.

10. Popular music by Pete Seeger, Joan Baez, and Bob Dylan expressed political idealism, protest, and loss of patience with the war and was an important part of the counterculture.

11. Beatlemania helped to deepen generational divides, and the Rolling Stones' songs addressed sexual openness and made fun of the consumer culture.

12. Drugs and sex intertwined with music as a crucial element of the youth culture; the Woodstock Music and Art Fair was heralded as the birth of the "Woodstock nation" in August 1969.

13. Many young people stayed out of the counterculture and the antiwar movement, yet to adults, it seemed that all of American youth were rejecting political, social, and cultural norms.

C. The Widening Struggle for Civil Rights

1. Once the system of legal segregation had fallen, the civil rights movement turned to the difficult task of eliminating de facto segregation, especially in the South.

2. Black separatism was revived by a religious group known as the Black Muslims, an organization that stressed black pride, unity, and self-help and was hostile to whites.

3. The Black Muslims' most charismatic figure, Malcolm X, advocated militant protest and separatism, although he condoned the use of violence only for self-defense.

4. Malcolm X eventually broke with the Nation of Islam and was assassinated by three Black Muslims while delivering a speech in Harlem in 1965.

5. A more secular black nationalist movement calling for "Black Power" emerged in 1966; the Black Panthers organization was founded to protect blacks from police violence.

6. Many young blacks insisted on the term Afro-American rather than Negro, and they wore African clothing and hairstyles to awaken interest in black history, art, and literature.

7. White Americans became wary when blacks began demanding immediate access to higher-paying jobs, housing, and education, along with increased political power.

8. Racial riots over police brutality against blacks caused death, destruction of property, and looting in cities across the United States between 1964 and 1968.

9. The National Advisory Commission on Civil Disorders released a report on the riots and warned that the nation was moving toward two separate and unequal societies: one black, one white.

10. Martin Luther King Jr. was later assassinated in Memphis, Tennessee, by James Earl Ray, setting off another explosion of urban rioting in more than 100 cities.

D. The Legacy of the Civil Rights Movement

1. In the 1960s segregation was overturned; federal legislation ensured protection of black Americans' civil rights; southern blacks were enfranchised; and black candidates were allowed to enter the political arena.

2. In 1986 Martin Luther King's birthday became a national holiday.

3. The situation of Mexican Americans changed when the Mexican American Political Association (MAPA) mobilized support for Kennedy, who in return appointed Mexican American leaders to posts in Washington.

4. Younger Mexican Americans coined the term "Chicano" and organized a new political party, La Raza Unida (The United Race), to promote Chicano political interests.

5. Chicano strategists also pursued economic objectives; Cesar Chavez organized the United Farm Workers (UFW), the first union to represent migrant workers successfully.

6. Native American activism by the leaders of the American Indian Movement (AIM) at Wounded Knee helped to alienate many whites, but it did spur government action on tribal issues.

7. After the 1969 "Stonewall riot," gay activists formed advocacy groups, newspapers, and political organizations to challenge discrimination and to offer emotional support for gays who "came out."

E. The Revival of Feminism

1. The black struggle became an inspiration for young feminists in the 1960s, but social and demographic changes also led to the revival of feminism.

2. By 1970, 42.6 percent of women were working, and 40 percent of working women were married.

3. During the baby boom, many women dropped out of college to marry and raise families; by 1970, 41 percent of college students were female.

4. The birth-control pill and the intrauterine device (IUD) helped women control their fertility, and more liberal divorce laws witnessed the increase of divorce rates.

5. A report by the Presidential Commission on the Status of Women in 1963 documented the discrimination women faced in employment and education.

6. Betty Friedan's Feminine Mystique gave women a vocabulary with which to express their dissatisfaction and promoted women's self-realization.

7. The Civil Rights Act of 1964 had as great an impact on women as it did on blacks; its Title VII became a powerful tool against sex discrimination.

8. Dissatisfied with the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission's (EEOC) reluctance to defend women's rights, Friedan and others founded the National Organization for Women (NOW) in 1966.

9. The women's liberationists came to the women's movement through their civil rights work; male leaders' treatment of women radicals caused them to see the need for their own movement.

10. Women's lib encouraged women to throw away all symbols of female oppression: hair curlers, girdles, bras, etc. "The personal is political" became their slogan.

11. By 1970 a growing convergence of interests began to blur the distinction between women's rights and women's liberation.

III. The Long Road Home, 1968–1975

A. 1968: A Year of Shocks

1. The Johnson administration's hopes for Vietnam evaporated when the Viet Cong unleashed a massive assault, known as the Tet offensive, on major urban areas in South Vietnam.

2. The attack made a mockery of official pronouncements that the United States was winning the war and swung public opinion more strongly against the conflict.

3. Senator Eugene J. McCarthy's strong showing in the presidential primaries reflected profound public dissatisfaction with the course of the war.

4. On March 31, 1968, Johnson stunned the nation by announcing that he would not seek reelection; he vowed to devote his remaining months in office to the search for peace, and peace talks began in May 1968.

5. That year the nation suffered through the assassination of Martin Luther King Jr., the ensuing riots, student unrest, and the assassination of Robert Kennedy.

6. The Democratic Party never fully recovered from Johnson's withdrawal and Robert Kennedy's assassination.

7. At the Democratic convention, "yippies" diverted attention from the more serious and more numerous antiwar activists who came to Chicago as delegates or volunteers.

8. In what was later described as a "police riot," patrolmen attacked protestors with Mace, teargas, and clubs as demonstrators chanted, "The whole world is watching!"

9. Democrats dispiritedly nominated Hubert H. Humphrey and approved a platform that endorsed continued fighting in Vietnam while diplomatic means to an end were explored.

10. George Wallace, a third-party candidate, skillfully combined attacks on liberal intellectuals and government elites with denunciations of school segregation and forced busing.

11. Richard Nixon tapped the increasingly conservative mood of the electorate and made an amazing political comeback, winning the 1968 Republican presidential nomination.

12. On October 31, 1968, Johnson announced a complete halt to the bombing of North Vietnam; Nixon countered by intimating that he had a plan for the end of the war, although he did not.

13. The closeness of the 1968 election suggested how polarized American society had become, and Nixon appealed to the "silent majority."

B. Nixon's War

1. When intensified bombing in Cambodia (unknown to the American public) failed to end the war, Nixon and Henry Kissinger adopted a policy of Vietnamization.

2. Antiwar demonstrators denounced the new policy, which protected American lives at the expense of the Vietnamese but would not end the war.

3. Nixon insisted that he would not be swayed by mounting protests; during the march on Washington, he barricaded himself in the White House and watched football.

4. An American incursion into Cambodia to destroy enemy havens was only a short-term setback for the North Vietnamese but helped destabilize the country, exposing it to takeover by the Khmer Rouge later in the 1970s.

5. After the Kent State slayings and the killings at Jackson State College, Americans polled said that campus unrest was the issue that troubled them most.

6. In June 1970 the Senate expressed its disapproval for the war by repealing the Tonkin resolution and cutting off funding for operations in Cambodia.

7. Troops sometimes refused to follow combat orders, some deserted, others sewed peace signs on their uniforms; some overbearing junior officers were killed by their own soldiers.

8. Americans were appalled by revelations of the sheer brutality of the war when, in 1971, Lieutenent William L. Calley was court-martialed for atrocities committed in My Lai.

9. The antiwar movement declined in part due to internal divisions and also Nixon's Vietnamization policy, a key role which reduced the number of soldiers in combat.

C. Détente and the End of the War

1. Nixon's policy of détente was to seek peaceful coexistence with the communist Soviet Union and China and to link these overtures of friendship with a plan to end the Vietnam War.

2. Nixon traveled to China in 1972 in a symbolic visit that set the stage for the establishment of formal diplomatic relations.

3. He then traveled to Moscow to sign the first Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty between the United States and the Soviet Union.

4. The treaty signified that the United States could no longer afford massive military spending to regain the nuclear and military superiority it had enjoyed after World War II.

5. In late 1971, as American troops withdrew, communist forces stepped up their attacks on Laos, Cambodia, and South Vietnam.

6. After yet another North Vietnamese offensive against South Vietnam, Nixon ordered B-52 bombings against North Vietnam and the mining of North Vietnamese ports.

7. With the help of a cease-fire agreement, Nixon won a resounding victory in the 1972 elections; however, the peace initiative stalled when South Vietnam rejected a provision concerning North Vietnamese troop positions.

8. Nixon stepped up the military actions with the "Christmas bombings"; the Paris Peace Accords were signed on January 27, 1973.

9. The accords did not fulfill Nixon's promise of "peace with honor," but they did call for the withdrawal of American troops, and for most Americans, that was enough.

10. The South Vietnamese government soon fell to communist forces; horrified Americans watched as American embassy personnel struggled to board helicopters leaving Saigon before North Vietnamese troops entered the city.

D. The Legacy of Vietnam

1. The Vietnam War occupied American administrations for nearly thirty years; U.S. troops fought the war for over eleven years, from 1961 to 1973.

2. Some 58,000 U.S. troops died in Vietnam, and another 300,000 were wounded.

3. The psychological tensions of serving in Vietnam and the difficulty of reentry into American society sowed the seeds for a syndrome now recognized as posttraumatic stress disorder.

4. In Southeast Asia the war claimed an estimated 1.5 million Vietnamese lives and devastated the country's physical and economic structure.

5. Spurned by their American fathers and by most Vietnamese, more than 30,000 Amerasians arrived in the United States in the 1990s.

6. The defeat in Vietnam prompted Americans to think differently about foreign affairs and to acknowledge the limits of U.S. power abroad.

7. In 1973 Congress declared its hostility to undeclared wars by passing the War Powers Act; when Congress does agree to intervention (as in the Gulf War), there must be obtainable military objectives and carefully channeled information to the media.

8. At a total price of over $150 billion, the war siphoned resources from domestic needs, added to the deficit, and fueled inflation.

9. The war shattered the liberal consensus that had supported the Democratic coalition.

10. The lies about American successes on the battlefield and the deception leading to the Tonkin resolution spawned a deep distrust of government among American citizens and paved the way for a conservative mood and the resurgence of the Republican Party.

Chapter 30 Annotated Outline

I. The Nixon Years

A. The Republican Domestic Agenda

1. Nixon's policies heralded a long-term Republican effort to trim back the Great Society and shift some federal responsibilities back to the states.

2. The 1972 revenue-sharing program distributed a portion of federal tax revenues back to the states as block grants.

3. Nixon reduced funding for most War on Poverty programs and dismantled the Office of Economic Opportunity in 1971.

4. He impounded billions of dollars appropriated by Congress for urban renewal, pollution control, and other environmental issues.

5. Nixon agreed to the growth of major entitlement programs such as Medicare, Medicaid, and Social Security.

6. In 1970 Nixon signed a bill establishing the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), and in 1972 he approved legislation creating the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA).

7. Nixon demonstrated his commitment to conservative social values most clearly with his appointments to the Supreme Court.

8. The Court appointees sometimes handed down decisions Nixon did not approve of like court-ordered busing and restrictions on the implementation of capital punishment.

9. Roe v. Wade (1973) struck down laws prohibiting abortion in Texas and Georgia.

B. The 1972 Election

1. Disarray within the Democratic Party over Vietnam and civil rights gave Nixon's campaign a decisive edge.

2. Nixon's opponent, Senator George McGovern, ran a poorly orchestrated campaign and was far too liberal for many traditional Democrats.

3. Nixon took advantage of his national position; his policy of Vietnamization had virtually eliminated American combat deaths by 1972.

4. An improving economy also favored the Republican Party; Nixon easily won reelection with 61 percent of the popular vote, although Democrats maintained control of both houses of Congress.

C. Watergate

1. Watergate was a direct result of Nixon's ruthless political tactics, his secretive style of governing, and his obsession with the antiwar movement.

2. The Pentagon Papers was a classified study of American involvement in Vietnam that detailed many American blunders and misjudgments.

3. In an effort to discredit Daniel Ellsberg, a former Defense Department analyst, White House underlings broke into his psychiatrist's office to look for damaging information.

4. The White House established a clandestine intelligence group known as the "plumbers" to plug government information leaks.

5. The "plumbers" used government agencies to harass opponents of the administration; their actions were illegally funded by Nixon's Committee to Re-Elect the President (CREEP).

6. In June 1972 five men were arrested breaking into the headquarters of the Democratic National Committee at the Watergate apartment complex in Washington.

7. The White House denied any involvement in the break-in, but investigations revealed that Nixon ordered his chief of staff to instruct the CIA to tell the FBI not to probe too deeply into connections between the White House and the burglars.

8. When the burglars were convicted in January 1973, Nixon approved of offering them money in return for their silence and possibly even pardons.

9. In February the Senate voted to establish a select committee to investigate the scandal; in April Nixon accepted the resignations of several of his closest advisors.

10. In May the Senate Watergate committee began nationally televised hearings; White House Council John Dean was fired after he offered testimony in exchange for immunity.

11. An aide revealed the existence of a secret taping system in the White House; Nixon eventually released heavily edited transcripts of the tapes.

12. Most suspicious was an eighteen-minute gap in the tape of a crucial meeting of Nixon, Haldeman, and Ehrlichman on June 20, 1972, three days after the break-in.

13. On June 30, 1974, the House of Representatives voted on three articles of impeachment against Nixon: obstruction of justice, abuse of power, and subverting the Constitution.

14. Nixon released the unexpurgated tapes, which contained evidence that he ordered a cover-up; facing certain conviction in a Senate trial, Nixon became the first U.S. president to resign on August 9, 1974.

15. Vice President Gerald Ford was sworn in as president; a month later he granted a full pardon to Nixon.

16. In 1974 a strengthened Freedom of Information Act gave citizens greater access to files that federal government agencies had amassed on them.

17. The Fair Campaign Practices Act of 1974 limited campaign contributions and provided for stricter accountability and public financing of presidential campaigns.

18. The most significant legacy of Watergate was the wave of cynicism that swept the country in its wake.

II. An Economy of Diminished Expectations

A. Energy Crisis

1. After twenty-five years of world leadership, the economic dominance of the United States had begun to fade.

2. By the late 1960s, the United States was buying more and more oil on the world market to keep up with shrinking domestic reserves and growing demand.

3. In 1973 the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) instituted an oil embargo against the United States, Western Europe, and Japan in retaliation for their aid to Israel during the Yom Kippur War.

4. The embargo lasted until 1974 and forced Americans to curtail their driving or spend hours in line at the pumps.

5. As Americans turned to more fuel-efficient foreign-made cars, the domestic auto industry slumped, profoundly affecting the American economy.

B. Economic Woes

1. The high cost of the Vietnam War and the Great Society had contributed to a steadily growing federal deficit and spiraling inflation.

2. In the industrial sector, the reviving economies of West Germany and Japan reduced demand for American goods.

3. In 1971 the dollar fell to its lowest level on the world market since 1949, and the United States posted its first trade deficit in almost a century.

4. Nixon suspended the 1944 Bretton Woods system, which meant the dollar would fluctuate in relation to the price of an ounce of gold.

5. Wage and price controls were instituted to curb inflation and $11 billion in deficit spending was offered to boost the sluggish economy.

6. Stagnating wages and rising unemployment produced a noticeable decline in most Americans' standard of living.

7. "Stagflation," the combination of inflation and unemployment, bedeviled presidential administrations from Nixon to Reagan.

8. American economic woes were most acute in the industrial sector, which entered a prolonged period of decline, or deindustrialization.

9. By the end of the 1970s, the hundred largest multinational corporations and banks were earning more than a third of their overall profits abroad.

10. In the Rust Belt huge factories were fast becoming relics; many workers moved to the Sun Belt where dramatic growth begun after World War II continued.

11. As foreign competition cut into corporate profits, industry became less willing to bargain, some companies moved their operations abroad, and the labor movement's power declined.

III. Reform and Reaction in the 1970s

A. The New Activism: Environmental and Consumer Movements

1. After 1970 many baby boomers left the counterculture behind and settled down to pursue careers and material goods.

2. In the "Me Decade" many Americans demanded an even higher standard of living that included healthy lifestyles, spiritual support, and a healthy environment.

3. The birth of America's modern environmental movement can be traced to Rachel Carson's 1962 publication, Silent Spring, an analysis of the impact of pesticides on the food chain.

4. The Alaskan pipeline and Love Canal situations deepened public awareness of the culpability of businesses in generating environmental hazards.

5. Nuclear energy became a subject of citizen action in the 1970s; public fears were confirmed in 1979 when a nuclear plant at Three Mile Island came critically close to a meltdown.

6. In 1969 Congress passed the National Environmental Policy Act, and in 1970 Nixon established the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and signed the Clean Air Act; DDT was banned in 1972.

7. The Endangered Species Act expanded the Endangered Animals Act of 1964, granting endangered species protected status.

8. In a time of rising unemployment and reindustrialization, activists clashed head-on with proponents of economic development, full employment, and global competitiveness.

9. The rise of environmentalism was paralleled by a growing consumer-protection movement to eliminate harmful consumer products and curb dangerous practices by American corporations.

10. Ralph Nader's Public Interest Research Group became the model for other groups that later emerged to combat the health hazards of smoking, unethical insurance and credit practices, and other consumer problems.

11. With the establishment of the federal Consumer Products Safety Commission in 1972, Congress acknowledged the growing need for consumer protection.

B. Challenges to Tradition: The Women's Movement and Gay Rights Activism

1. Feminism was the most enduring movement to emerge from the 1960s; as the women's movement grew, it generated an array of women-oriented services and organizations.

2. Gloria Steinem's Ms. magazine was the first aimed at the feminist market; formerly all-male bastions like Yale admitted women for the first time.

3. Women's political mobilization with the National Organization for Women (NOW) and the National Women's Political Caucus resulted in significant legislative and administrative gains.

4. Title IX of the Educational Amendments Act of 1972 prohibited colleges and universities that received federal funds from discriminating on the basis of sex.

5. Affirmative action was extended to women in 1967; in 1972 Congress authorized child-care deductions for working parents; in 1974 the Equal Credit Opportunity Act improved women's access to credit.

6. The Supreme Court gave women more control over their reproductive lives by reading the right of privacy into the Ninth and Fourteenth Amendments' concepts of personal liberty.

7. Griswold v. Connecticut (1965) overturned state laws against the sale of contraceptive devices to married adults.

8. The Roe v. Wade (1973) decision prevented states from outlawing abortions performed during the first trimester and fueled the development of a powerful antiabortion movement.

9. The battlefront for the women's movement was the proposed Equal Rights Amendment (ERA); not enough states ratified the amendment, and by 1982 it was dead.

10. Nonwhite and working-class women saw the feminist movement as catering to self-seeking white career women; the movement also faced growing social conservatism among Americans.

11. More women joined the workforce, many delayed getting married and having children, and the divorce rate went up; by 1980 women accounted for 66 percent of adults living below the poverty line.

12. The gay liberation movement achieved greater visibility in the 1970s as gay communities gave rise to hundreds of new gay and lesbian clubs, churches, businesses, and political organizations.

13. Some cities passed laws barring discrimination on the basis of sexual preference.

14. Gay rights came under attack from conservatives who believed that protecting gay people's rights would encourage immoral behavior; antigay campaigns sprang up around the country.

C. Racial Minorities

1. Although the civil rights movement was in disarray by the late 1960s, minority group protests over the next decade continued to win social and economic gains.

2. Native Americans realized some of the most significant changes with the 1971 Alaska Native Claims Act and the Indian Self-Determination Act of 1974.

3. The court-mandated busing of children to achieve school desegregation proved to be the most disruptive social issue of the 1970s.

4. The Supreme Court decisions of Brown v. Board of Education (1954) and Milliken v. Bradley (1974) sparked intense, sometimes violent opposition such as that in Boston in 1974–1975.

5. Threatened by court-ordered busing, many white parents transferred their children to private schools; the resulting "white flight" increased the racial imbalance busing was intended to redress.

6. Affirmative action, which had expanded opportunities for African Americans and Latinos, also proved divisive.

7. Bakke v. University of California (1978) was a setback for proponents of affirmative action and prepared the way for subsequent efforts to eliminate those programs.

8. Activists for the various causes were part of a "rights revolution," a movement in the 1960s and 1970s to bring the issues of social injustice and welfare to the forefront of public policy.

D. The Politics of Resentment

1. Vocal opposition to busing, affirmative action, gay-rights ordinances, and the Equal Rights Amendment, along with the rapidly growing antiabortion movement, constituted a broad backlash against the social changes of the previous decade.

2. The economic changes of the 1970s further fueled the "politics of resentment," a grassroots revolt against special-interest groups and the growing expenditures on social welfare.

3. Resentment manifested itself in a wave of taxpayers' revolts, like California's Proposition 13, which undercut the local government's ability to maintain schools and other services.

4. The rising popularity of evangelical religion also fueled the conservative resurgence of the 1970s; many of the evangelicals spoke out on a broad range of controversial issues.

5. The extensive media and fund-raising networks of the Christian right became the organizational base for a larger conservative movement known as the "New Right."

6. The New Right's diverse constituents, such as the "neoconservatives," shared a hostility toward a powerful federal government and a fear of declining social morality.

7. New Right political groups mobilized thousands of followers and millions of dollars to support conservative candidates and causes.

IV. Politics in the Wake of Watergate

A. Ford's Caretaker Presidency

1. During the two years Gerald Ford was president, he failed to establish his legitimacy; his pardon of Nixon damaged his credibility.

2. Ford's biggest challenge was the reeling economy; his failure to take more vigorous action made him appear timid and powerless.

3. In 1974 inflation soared to 12 percent, and the economy took its deepest downturn since the Great Depression.

4. In foreign policy Ford maintained Nixon's détente initiatives, increased support to the shah of Iran, and made little progress towards an arms limitation treaty with the Soviets.

B. Jimmy Carter: The Outsider as President

1. Playing up his role as a Washington outsider and pledging to restore morality to government, Jimmy Carter won the 1976 presidential election with 50 percent of the popular vote.

2. Inflation was Carter's major domestic challenge; to counter inflation, interest rates were raised repeatedly, and in 1980 they topped 20 percent.

3. Carter enlarged the cabinet by creating the Departments of Energy and Education and approved environmental protection measures such as a "Superfund" to clean up chemical pollution.

4. Carter reformed the civil-service system, and he deregulated the airline, trucking, and railroad industries.

5. Carter failed in his efforts to decontrol oil and natural gas prices and failed to provide leadership during the energy crisis.

6. In foreign affairs, Carter made human rights the centerpiece of his policy: he criticized the suppression of dissent in the Soviet Union, withdrew economic aid from countries that violated human rights, and established the Office of Human Rights in the State Department.

7. In 1977 Carter signed a treaty that turned over control of the Panama Canal to Panama effective December 31, 1999.

8. Carter curtailed grain sales to the USSR and boycotted the 1980 Olympics in Moscow in retaliation for the Soviet Union's invasion of Afghanistan.

9. Carter brokered a "framework for peace" between Israel and Egypt that included Egypt's recognition of Israel's right to exist and Israel's return of the Sinai Peninsula.

10. On November 4, 1979, Iranian fundamentalists seized the U.S. embassy in Tehran and took American hostages; the crisis paralyzed Carter's presidency for the next fourteen months.

C. The Reagan Revolution

1. Ronald Reagan won the 1980 presidential election with 51 percent of the popular vote; Republicans won control of the Senate for the first time since 1954.

2. The core of the Republican Party remained upper-middle-class whites who supported balanced budgets and a strong national defense, disliked government activism, and feared crime and communism.

3. New groups gravitated toward the Republican vision: southern whites, urban ethnics, blue-collar workers, westerners, and young voters.

4. A significant constituency in the Republican Party was the New Right, whose emphasis on traditional values and fundamentalist Christian morality fit well with Republican ideology.

5. When Carter turned the presidency over to Ronald Reagan on January 20, 1981, the Iranian government released the American hostages.

Chapter 31

Chapter Annotated Outline

I. The Reagan-Bush Years, 1981–1993

A. Reaganomics

1. Distrustful of big government, both Ronald Reagan and George Bush turned away from the federal government as a source of solutions for America's social problems.

2. The economic and tax policies that emerged under Reagan, dubbed "Reaganomics," were based on supply-side economics theory.

3. The Economic Recovery Act of 1981 reduced income-tax rates by 25 percent over three years.

4. The net impact of Reaganomics was to further redistribute income from the poor to the wealthy.

5. The administration moved to abolish or reduce federal regulation in the workplace, in health care, in consumer protection, and in the environment.

6. The money saved by these cuts was put into a five-year $1.2 trillion defense buildup; Reagan's most controversial weapons plan was the Strategic Defense Initiative ("Star Wars").

7. In the early 1980s the inflation rate dropped from 12.4 to just 4 percent; the Federal Reserve's tightening of the money supply also brought on the "Reagan recession" of 1981–1982.

8. With inflation low, the Reagan administration presided over the longest peacetime prosperity expansion in American history.

B. Reagan's Second Term

1. Reagan won a landslide victory over Democrat Walter Mondale and his running mate, Geraldine Ferraro, the first woman to run on a major-party ticket.

2. The Iran-Contra affair marred Reagan's second term; Congress investigated, but White House officials testified that the president knew nothing about the diversion of profits from arms sales.

3. Reagan did reorder the federal government's priorities, but he failed to reduce its size or scope.

4. Reagan's spending cuts and antigovernment rhetoric shaped the terms of political debate for the rest of the century.

5. One of Reagan's most significant legacies was his conservative judicial appointments; Sandra Day O'Connor was the first woman ever to serve on the Supreme Court.

6. The national debt tripled during Reagan's tenure from the combined effects of increased military spending, tax reductions for high-income taxpayers, and Congress's refusal to approve deep cuts in domestic programs.

7. Budget and trade deficits contributed to the U.S. shift in 1985 from a creditor to a debtor nation.

C. The Bush Presidency

1. Promising "no new taxes," George Bush, with running mate Dan Quayle, defeated Democrat Michael Dukakis in the 1988 election by winning 53.4 percent of the popular vote.

2. Some significant domestic trends of the Bush era were determined by the judicial branch: Webster v. Reproductive Health Services (1989) gave states more latitude in restricting abortions.

3. In the wake of the Clarence Thomas hearings, national polls confirmed the pervasiveness of sexual harassment on the job.

4. Facing the prospect of a layoff of thousands of government employees, Congress resorted to spending cuts and one of the largest tax increases in history.

5. Reagan's decision to shift the cost of federal programs to state and local governments caused problems for Bush; in 1990 a recession began to erode state and local tax revenues.

6. Unemployment rose to 7 percent in 1991, and state and local governments laid off workers even as the demand for social services and unemployment compensation climbed.

II. Foreign Relations under Reagan and Bush

A. Interventions in Developing Countries and the End of the Cold War

1. Airplane hijackings and countless terrorist incidents in the Middle East led Reagan to order airstrikes against terrorist chief of state Muammar al-Qadhdhafi of Libya.

2. Reagan's top priority was to overthrow the communist-led Sandinista government in Nicaragua; in 1981 the United States suspended aid to Nicaragua.

3. The CIA began to provide extensive covert support to Nicaragua's opposition forces, known as the "Contras"; this situation precipitated the Iran-Contra affair.

4. Reagan's second term brought a reduction in tensions with the Soviet Union; in 1987 Reagan and Gorbachev agreed to eliminate intermediate-range missiles in Europe.

5. The Berlin Wall fell in 1989, and a failed coup to oust Gorbachev broke the Communist Party's dominance over the Soviet Union.

B. War in the Persian Gulf, 1990–1991

1. On August 2, 1990, Iraq invaded and quickly conquered neighboring Kuwait, catching American policymakers by surprise.

2. Bush sponsored a series of resolutions in the United Nations Security Council condemning Iraq, calling for its withdrawal, and imposing embargo and trade sanctions.

3. When Saddam Hussein showed no signs of complying with the resolutions, Bush used the UN to create the legal framework for an international military offensive.

4. The forty-two-day war was a resounding success for the United Nations' coalition forces, which were predominantly American; yet, Hussein remained in power.

5. The euphoria produced at home by the success of Operation Desert Storm quickly subsided when a new recession showed that the country had serious economic problems.

III. Uncertain Times

A. The Economy

1. The slow growth in productivity and the growing inequality in income distribution were the two most salient economic trends in the 1980s and 1990s.

2. Since 1973 productivity had increased less than 1 percent annually, and in 1991 the typical family's income was only 5 percent higher than it had been in 1973.

3. By 1996 the United States was the most economically stratified industrial nation in the world.

4. Changes in the job market led to diminished expectations among workers; the number of minimum wage jobs grew, but the number of union-protected manufacturing jobs shrank.

5. Major corporations trimmed management positions.

6. In 1994, 58.8 percent of women were in the labor force; one out of five women held a clerical or secretarial job, and their pay lagged behind that of men.

7. The labor movement continued to decline; in 1998 unions represented only 13.9 percent of the labor force.

8. To compete internationally, American firms adopted new technologies; by the late 1990s, the United States led the world in information technology and expanded productivity in manufacturing.

9. Many stock market analysts feared that a steep drop in the stock market might cause a recession; others feared that consumer spending and economic growth was linked to debt.

B. An Increasingly Pluralistic Society

1. Between 1981 and 1996, 13.5 million immigrants entered the United States, most of them Latinos and Asians.

2. These immigrants have had a tremendous impact on America's social, economic, and cultural landscape, producing thriving ethnic communities, ethnic restaurants, and specialized periodicals.

3. In 1990 the immigration quota was expanded to 700,000 per year; many American workers feared that immigrants would adversely affect job prospects.

4. Opponents challenged the constitutionality of California's Proposition 187, but anti-immigrant sentiments soon spread to other parts of the country.

5. In the cities African Americans and the new immigrants were forced by economic necessity and segregation patterns to compete for space in decaying, crime-ridden ghettos.

6. The 1992 Los Angeles race riots exposed the cleavages in urban neighborhoods and were class-based protests against the failure of the American system to address the needs of all poor people.

7. In 1995 the University of California voted to end affirmative action, and the struggle was intensified by Proposition 209, which banned all preference based on race or gender.

8. Lumping affirmative action together with multiculturalism, critics feared that all this counting by race, gender, sexual preference, and age would fragment American society.

C. Backlash against Women's and Gay Rights

1. Conservative critics targeted the women's movement and held it responsible for every ill affecting modern women, although polls showed strong support for feminist demands.

2. The deep divide over abortion, one of the main issues associated with feminism, continued to polarize the country.

3. Although only a fraction of antiabortionists supported violent acts, disruptive confrontational tactics made practicing one's legal right dangerous for women.

4. Conservatives felt that gay rights threatened America's traditional family values; across the nation "gay bashing" and other forms of violence against homosexuals continued.

5. Added to the gay men's struggle were health concerns regarding acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS), first recognized by physicians in 1981 in the gay male population.

6. AIDS cases began to increase among heterosexuals and bisexuals as early as the mid-1980s.

7. New drug treatments offer some hope, but they are very expensive; to date more Americans have died from AIDS than were killed in the Korean and Vietnam Wars combined.

D. Popular Culture and Popular Technology

1. MTV had a strong influence on popular culture with its creative choreography, flashy colors, and rapid cuts.

2. USA Today, which debuted in 1982, adopted the "MTV style" with eye-catching graphics, color photographs, and short, easy-to-read articles; other newspapers followed suit.

3. Satellite transmission and live "minicam" broadcasting reshaped the television industry; soon cable access and satellite dishes were commonplace.

4. The 1980s saw the introduction of videocassette recorders (VCRs), compact disc (CD) players, cellular phones, and inexpensive fax machines.

5. The personal computer revolutionized both the home and office; in 1995, 37 percent of American households had at least one personal computer.

6. The computer created the modern electronic office, and the very concept of the office changed as a new class of telecommuters worked at home via computer, fax, and e-mail.

7. By 1999 almost 200 million people used the Internet; the debut of the World Wide Web in 1991 enhanced the commercial possibilities of the Internet.

IV. The Clinton Presidency: Public Life since 1993

A. Clinton's First Term

1. The narrowness of Bill Clinton's victory over George Bush and Ross Perot and the public's perception that he did not stand for anything did not augur well for his ability to lead the country.

2. Clinton made trailblazing appointments to his cabinet, filling positions with women, African Americans, and Latinos.

3. Clinton signed a Family and Medical Leave Act but backed off on the issue of gays in the military, offering a compromise policy of "Don't ask, don't tell, don't pursue."

4. With Clinton's support, the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) was passed in 1993, and the General Agreements on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) was revised in 1994.

5. Crime was a major concern among voters; the Brady Handgun Violence Prevention Act passed in 1993, and the Omnibus Violent Crime Control and Prevention Act passed in 1994.

6. Clinton chose his wife, Hillary Rodham Clinton, to head a task force to draft legislation for universal health care; by 1994 the health-care reform initiative was dead.

7. Clinton appeared to the American public to be vacillating, indecisive, and lacking in vision, especially in his handling of foreign affairs.

8. President Clinton helped facilitate a peace accord in 1995 that would, at least temporarily, end the fighting in Bosnia.

9. The United States established diplomatic relations with Hanoi in July 1995, two decades after the fall of Saigon.

B. "The Era of Big Government Is Over"

1. In the House of Representatives, the centerpiece of the new Republican majority was the "contract with America."

2. Clinton, bowing to political reality, declared that the "era of big government is over."

3. The budget that Clinton signed in April 1996 left Medicare and Social Security intact, and it met the Republican's goal of cutting $23 million from discretionary spending.

4. Clinton, who had campaigned on a promise of welfare reform, signed the Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Act, a historic overhaul of federal entitlements.

5. The Republican takeover of Congress united the Democrats behind the president; unopposed in the 1996 primaries, Clinton was able to burnish his image as a moderate "New Democrat."

6. In the 1996 elections, Republican Bob Dole made a 15 percent across-the-board tax cut the centerpiece of his campaign, while Clinton emphasized an improved economy.

7. A key factor in Clinton's second term would be the necessity of pursuing bipartisan policies, or be left facing a stalemate.

C. Second-Term Stalemates

1. Bill Clinton's ability to pursue his domestic agenda was compromised by a scandal that would eventually lead to his impeachment and by two international crises.

2. The first crisis emerged in 1997 when Saddam Hussein ejected American members of a U.N. inspection team that was searching Iraqi sites for hidden "weapons of mass destruction."

3. With limited international support, the United States began a military buildup in the Persian Gulf, and in 1998, the same issues led to an intense four-day joint U.S.-British bombing campaign, called "Desert Fox."

4. The s